The Respiratory System

 P.803 The trillions of cells making up

the body require a continuous supply of
oxygen to carry out vital functions
 We cannot do without O2 for even a
little while, as we can do without water
or food
 As cells use O2 and give off CO2
 P.802 The major function of the
respiratory system is to supply the
body with O2 and dispose of CO2
 To accomplish this function, at least
four processes, collectively called
respiration must happen
 1. Pulmonary ventilation – commonly
called breathing
 2. External respiration – movement
of O2 from the lungs and of CO2 from
the blood to the lungs
 3. Transport of respiratory gases –
transport of O2 from the lungs to the
tissue cells of the body, and of CO2 from
the tissue cells to the lungs.
Accomplished by the CV system
 4. Internal respiration – movement
of O2 from blood to the tissue cells and
of CO2 from tissue cells to blood
 The respiratory and circulatory systems
are closely coupled, and if either system
fails, the body’s cells begin to die from
oxygen deprivation
Functional Anatomy of the
Respiratory System
 P.803 The respiratory system includes
the external nares, nasal cavity, internal
nares, pharynx (naso, oro, laryngo)
larynx, trachea, bronchi and their small
branches, and the lungs, which contain
the terminal air sacs or alveoli
 Functionally, the system consists of two
zones:
 1. The respiratory zone, the actual
site of gas exchange, is composed of
the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts, and alveoli

 2. The conducting zone includes all

other respiratory passageways
The nose and paranasal
sinuses
 The nose is the only externally visible
part of the respiratory system
 (1) provides an airway for respiration
(2) moistens and warms entering air
(3) Filters and cleans inspired air
(4) a resonating chamber for speech
(5) houses the olfactory (smell)
receptors
 The nasal cavity is divided by a midline
nasal septum
 The floor is formed by the palate, which
separates the nasal cavity from the oral
cavity below
 P.805 The respiratory mucosa –
pseudostratified ciliated columner
epithelium
The Pharynx
 P.806 It connects the nasal cavity and
mouth superiorly and larynx and
esophagus inferiorly
 From superior to inferior, it is divided
into three regions – the nasopharynx,
oropharynx and laryngopharynx
 The nasophrynx is posterior to the
nasal cavity
 It serves only as an air passageway,
because it lies above the point where
food enters the body
 During swallowing, the soft palate and
its pendulous uvula move superiorly, an
action that closes off the nasopharynx
and prevents food entering the nasal
cavity
 The Oropharynx lies posterior to the
oral cavity , both swallowed food and
inhaled air pass through it
 The laryngopharynx also serves as a
passageway for food and air
 It lies posterior to the epiglottis and
extends to the larynx, where the
respiratory and digestive pathways
divide
 The esophagus conducts food and fluids
to the stomach; air enters the larynx
anteriorly
 During swallowing, food has the “right
of way,” and air passage temporarily
stops
 The larynx or voice box – superiorly
opens into the laryngopharynx .
Inferiorly, continuous with the trachea
 P.807 The larynx has three functions:
 1. provide an patent (open) airway
 2. act as a switching to route air and
food into the proper channels
 3. voice production
 P.808 the vocal folds or true vocal
cords - it vibrate, producing sounds as
air rushes up from the lungs
 Voice Production – tensor the cords,
the faster they vibrate and higher the
pitch.
 As a boy’s larynx enlarges during
puberty, his vocal cords become longer
and thicker. Hence it causes them to
vibrate more slowly, his voice becomes
deeper.
 P.809 The trachea or windpipe
descends from the larynx through the
neck and into the mediastinum
 The outer most connective tissue layer
reinforced internally 16 to 20 C-shaped
rings of hyaline cartilage
 P.813 The last tracheal cartilage is
expanded , and a spar or cartilage,
called the carina
 P.810 Conducting Zone – primary bronchi,
secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi,
bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles
 P.811 Respiratory Zone – respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and
alveoli
 The alveoli provide a tremendous surface
area for gas exchange
 The respiratory membrane – the
alveolar and capillary walls, that has
gas on one side and blood flowing past
on the other
 Gas exchange occurs by simple
diffusion
 O2 passes from alveolus into the blood,
and CO2 leaves the blood into alveolus
 P.815 The paired lungs occupy all of
the thoracic cavity except the
mediastinum
 Because the apex of the heart is slightly
to the left of the median plane, the two
lungs differ slightly in shape and size
 The left lung is divided into upper and
lower lobes by oblique fissure
 The right lungs is partitioned into
upper, middle, and lower lobes by the
oblique and horizontal fissures
 Systemic venous blood that is to be
oxygenated in the lungs is delivered by
the pulmonary arteries which feed into
the pulmonary capillary networks
surrounding the alveoli
 P.816 Freshly oxygenated blood is from
the respiratory zones of the lungs to the
heart by the pulmonary veins
 The pleurae are a thin, double layered
serosa
 The outer is the parietal pleura and
the inner is the visceral pleura
 The pleurae produce pleural fluid, which
fills the slitlike pleural cavity. This
lubricating secretion allows the lungs to
glide easily during breathing
 P.819 Pleurisy – inflammation of the
pleurae, often results from pneumonia
Mechanism of Breathing
 P.816 Breathing, or pulmonary
ventilation, consists of two phases;
 Inspiration - the period when air flows
into the lungs
 Expiration – when gases exit the lungs
 Atmospheric pressure; Intrapleural
pressure; Intrapulmonary pressure
Pulmonary Ventilation
 P.817 Boyle’s law – is the relationship
between the pressure and volume of a
gas. At constant temp, the pressure of
a gas varies inversely with its volume
 P1V1 = P2V2
 P.818 Figure 22.13
 P.820 Resistance Figure 22.15
 P.820 As like CV system resistance in
the respiratory tree is determined
mostly by the diameters on the
conducting tubes, maximum resistance
in the bronchioles
 Parasympathetic causes vigorous
constriction of the bronchioles and
reduces the air passage, reverse is ….
Respiratory Volumes and
Pulmonary Function Tests
 P.821 The four respiratory volumes –
tidal, inspiratory reserve, expiratory
reserve, and residual
 Tidal volume (TV) – the amount of air
moves in and out of the lungs during
normal quiet breathing, about 500 ml
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) -
the amount of air that can be inspired
forcibly beyond the TV, about 3100ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) -
the amount of air that can be
evacuated from the lungs after tidal
expiration, about 1200 ml
 Residual volume (RV) – the air
remains in the lungs after forced
expiration, about 1200 ml
Respiratory Capacities
 P.822 The respiratory capacities – are
inspiratory capacity, vital capacity,
functional residual capacity and total
lung capacity ; these are specific
combination of respiratory volumes
 Inspiratory capacity (IC)=TV + IRV
 Vital Capacity (VC)=TV + IRV +
ERV, about 4800 ml healthy young
males
 Functional residual capacity (FRC) -
ERV + RV
 Total lung capacity (TLC) – is the
sum of all lung volumes , about 6000 ml
 Anatomical dead space – fills the
conducting zone conduits and never
contributes to gas exchange in the
alveoli
 P.823 Pulmonary function tests -
The instrument is Spirometer
 P.824 Dalton’s law of partial
pressure – the total pressure exerted
by a mixture of gases is the sum of the
pressures exerted independently by
each gas in the mixture
 Henry’s law – when a mixture of
gases is in contact with a liquid, each
gas will dissolve in the liquid in
proportion to its partial pressure
 CO2 is most soluble
 O2 is only 1/20 as soluble as CO2
 N2 is nearly insoluble
Gas Exchanges Between the
Blood, Lungs, and Tissues
 P.825 External respiration & Internal
respiration
 P. 826 Figure 22.17
 Respiratory membrane is only 0.5 –
1um thick, and gas exchange is usually
very efficient
 If the lungs become waterlogged and
edematous ( as in pneumonia), the
membrane becomes thick
 The greater the surface area of the
respiratory membrane, the more gas
diffuse across it in a given time period
 In certain pulmonary diseases, the
alveolar surface area is drastically
reduced, eg. emphysema
 P.827 Internal Respiration -
Oxygen Transport
 P.828 O2 is carried in blood in two
ways: 99% bound to hemoglobin
 O2 is poorly soluble in water 1%, so
only 1% is carried in dissolved form
 Oxyhemoglobin or HbO2 –
 Reduced hemoglobin or
deoxyhemoglobin or HHb -
 Fully saturated –
 Partially saturated –
 Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve – is not linear; this S-shaped
curve has a steep slope between 10
and 50 mmHg PO2 and then flattens
out between 70 and 100 mmHg
 P.830 Figure 22.20
 P.829 Hypoxia – inadequate oxygen
delivery to body tissues
 Anemic hypoxia –
 Ischemic hypoxia –
 Histotoxic hypoxia -
 Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning -
Carbon Dioxide Transport
 P.829 Dissolved in plasma – 10%
 Chemically bound to Hb - 20%,
called carbaminohemoglobin
 As bicarbonate – 70%, an enzyme
called carbonic anhydrase
 -

 Chloride shift –
 P.827 Figure 22.22
Control of Respiration
 P.834 Respiratory centers are located in
the medulla oblongata and pons
 Control of normal respiration is located
in medulla oblongata, also called
inspiratory center; “on” cause
inspiration and “off” cause expiration
 2 seconds on and 3 seconds off; results
in a respiration of 12 – 15 breaths/min
 Eupnea – normal respiratory rate and
rhythm
 Apneustic center – activates
inspiratory area results into prolonged
breathing
 Pneumotaxic center - inactivates
inspiratory area; quick breathing
 836 Hypercapnia –
 Hypocapnia –
 Hypoventilation –
 Apnea –
 P.838 Hyperpnea –
 Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) –
 P.839 Dyspnea -
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD)
 Emphysema – deterioration of the
alveolar walls
 P.840 Chronic bronchitis –
inflammation and fibrosis of the mucosa
 Asthma – active inflammation of the
airways comes first
 Tuberculosis –
 P.841 Lung cancer -