CHAPTER 4
METAL CASTING
Compiled by:
Norliana Mohd Abbas
Sources:
1. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes and System,
Mikell P. Groover, John Wiley & Sons (Asia), 2007
Classification of solidification processes
Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity
• The term casting also applies to the part made in
the process
• Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others
are near net shape
• Can produce very large parts
• Some casting methods are suited to mass
production
Disadvantages of Casting
• Different disadvantages for different casting
processes:
– Limitations on mechanical properties
– Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some
processes; e.g., sand casting
– Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
– Environmental problems
Parts Made by Casting
• Big parts
– Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood
burning stoves, machine frames, railway wheels, pipes,
church bells, big statues, pump housings
• Small parts
– Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans
• All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous
Overview of Casting Technology
• Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Foundry = factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metal,
performing the casting process, and cleaning
the finished casting
• Workers who perform casting are called
foundrymen
The Mold in Casting
• Contains cavity whose geometry determines
part shape
– Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized
to allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling
– Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand,
plaster, ceramic, and metal
Open Molds and Closed Molds
(a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part; and
(b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating
system (passageway) leading into the cavity.
Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an
expendable mold which must be destroyed to
remove casting
– Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus
binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a
permanent mold which can be used over and
over to produce many castings
– Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory
material
Advantages and Disadvantages
• More intricate geometries are possible with
expendable mold processes
• Part shapes in permanent mold processes are
limited by the need to open the mold
• Permanent mold processes are more
economic in high production operations
Sand Casting Mold
Sand Casting Mold Terms
• Mold consists of two halves:
– Cope = upper half of mold
– Drag = bottom half
• Mold halves are contained in a box, called a
flask
• The two halves separate at the parting line
The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged
to account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
Types of Patterns
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to
pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between
the mold cavity and the core to form the
casting's external and internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in
the mold cavity during pouring, called
chaplets
Core in Mold
(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets,
(b) possible chaplet design,
(c) casting with internal cavity.
Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist
erosion
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to
pass through voids in sand
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact
with molten metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the casting
Forming the Mold Cavity
• Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, which has the shape of the part
• When the pattern is removed, the remaining
cavity of the packed sand has desired shape of
cast part
• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling
• Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder
to maintain its shape
Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
• The mold cavity provides the external surfaces
of the cast part
• In addition, a casting may have internal
surfaces, determined by a core, placed inside
the mold cavity to define the interior
geometry of part
• In sand casting, cores are generally made of
sand
Gating System
Channel through which molten metal flows into
cavity from outside of mold
• Consists of a downsprue, through which metal
enters a runner leading to the main cavity
• At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is
often used to minimize splash and turbulence
as the metal flows into downsprue
Riser
Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid
metal to compensate for shrinkage of the part
during solidification
• The riser must be designed to freeze after the
main casting in order to satisfy its function
Heating the Metal
• Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal
to molten temperature sufficient for casting
• The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
3. Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature for
pouring
Pouring the Molten Metal
• For this step to be successful, metal must flow
into all regions of the mold, most importantly
the main cavity, before solidifying
• Factors that determine success
– Pouring temperature
– Pouring rate
– Turbulence
Solidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into solid
state
• Solidification differs depending on whether
the metal is
– A pure element or
– An alloy
Solidification Time
• Solidification takes time
• Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting
to solidify after pouring
• TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V
TST Cm
A
where TST = total solidification time; V = volume of the
casting; A = surface area of casting; n = exponent with
typical value = 2; and Cm is mold constant.
Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule
• Mold constant Cm depends on:
– Mold material
– Thermal properties of casting metal
– Pouring temperature relative to melting point
• Value of Cm for a given casting operation can
be based on experimental data from previous
operations carried out using same mold
material, metal, and pouring temperature,
even though the shape of the part may be
quite different
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us
• A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area
ratio cools and solidifies more slowly than one
with a lower ratio
– To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for riser must
greater than TST for main casting
• Since mold constants of riser and casting will
be equal, design the riser to have a larger
volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting
solidifies first
– This minimizes the effects of shrinkage
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
(0) starting level of molten metal immediately after pouring;
(1) reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during cooling (dimensional
reductions are exaggerated for clarity
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by solidification
shrinkage;
(3) further reduction in height and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling
of solid metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity
Solidification Shrinkage
• Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid
phase
• Thus, solidification causes a reduction in
volume per unit weight of metal
• Exception: cast iron with high C content
– Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes
expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease associated
with phase change
Shrinkage Allowance
• Patternmakers account for solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction by making
mold cavity oversized
• Amount by which mold is made larger relative
to final casting size is called pattern shrinkage
allowance
• Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly
Riser Design
• Riser is waste metal that is separated from the
casting and remelted to make more castings
• To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is
desirable for the volume of metal in the riser
to be a minimum
• Since the geometry of the riser is normally
selected to maximize the V/A ratio, this allows
riser volume to be reduced to the minimum
possible value
Thank You