Chapter 3
AC MEASUREMENTS
Sinusoidal Waveform
• Sinusoidal waveform especially sine and
cosine waves is commonly used for
alternating current (ac) and alternating
voltage representative and shown in Figure
3.1.
• The time required for a sine wave to complete
one full cycle is called the period (T).
• Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a
sine wave completes in one second.
#
Fig. 3.1. #
Sinusoidal Waveform
• The general expression for a sine wave
is:
x(t) = A sin t
where: x(t) = an instantaneous value (v or i)
A = amplitude or peak value of waveform
= angular frequency
t = time (in seconds)
#
Sinusoidal Waveform
• The instantaneous values of a sine wave
voltage (or current) are different at different
points along the curve.
• Having negative and positive values.
• The peak value of a sine wave is the value of
voltage or current at the positive or negative
maximum with respect to zero.
• The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave is the
voltage or current from the positive peak to
the negative peak.
#
Sinusoidal Waveform
• The rms (root mean square) value, or
effective value, of a sinusoidal voltage is
equal to the dc voltage that produces the
same amount of heat in a resistance, as does
the sinusoidal voltage.
• The average value is the total area under the
half-cycle curve divided by the distance in
radians of the curve along the horizontal axis.
#
Related Formulas
VP
Vrms For all cases
2
I
I rms P
2
2 Vp
Vdc
For full-wave rectifier
2 I p
I dc
AND
Vp
Vdc
For half-wave rectifier
Ip
I dc #
Electrodynamometer
• An electrodynamometer (EDM) is often used
in accurate voltmeter and ammeters not only
at power line frequency but also at low AF
range.
• The EDM can be used by slightly modifying
the PMMC movement.
• It may also serve as a transfer instrument,
because it can be calibrated on dc and then
used directly on ac thereby equating ac and
dc measurements of voltage and current
directly.
#
Electrodynamometer
• A movable coil is used to provide the magnetic field in an EDM,
instead of a permanent magnet, as in the D'Arsonval movement.
This movable coil rotates within the magnetic field.
• The EDM uses the current under measurement to produce the
required field flux.
• A fixed coil, split into two equal halves provides the magnetic
field in which the movable coil rotates, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a).
Fig 2.6(a)
#
Electrodynamometer
• The coil halves are connected in series with the
moving coil and are fed by the current being
measured.
• The fixed coils are spaced far apart to allow passage
for the shaft of the movable coil.
• The movable coil carries a pointer, which is balanced
by counterweights. Its rotation is controlled by
springs, similar to those in a D’Arsonval movement.
• The complete assembly is surrounded by a laminated
shield to protect the instrument from stray magnetic
field which may affect its operation.
#
Electrodynamometer
• Damping is provided by aluminium air vanes moving
in a sector shaped chamber. (The entire movement is
very solid and rigidly constructed in order to keep its
mechanical dimensions stable, and calibration intact.)
• The operation of the instrument may be understood
from the expression for the torque developed by a coil
suspended in a magnetic field, i.e,
=BxAxNxI
• indicating that the torque which deflects the movable
coil is directly proportional to the coil constants (A and
N), the strength of the magnetic field in which the coil
moves (B), and the current (/) flowing through the coil.
#
Electrodynamometer
• In an EDM the flux density (B) depends on the
current through the fixed coil and is therefore
proportional to the deflection current (/).
• Since the coil constants are fixed quantities for any
given meter, the developed torque becomes a
function of the current squared (I2).
• If the EDM is used for dc measurement, the square
law can be noticed by the crowding of the scale
markings at low current values, progressively
spreading at higher current values.
#
Electrodynamometer
• For ac measurement, the developed torque at any instant is
proportional to the instantaneous current squared (i2).
• The instantaneous values of i are always positive and torque
pulsations are therefore produced.
• The meter movement, however, cannot follow rapid variations of
the torque and take up a position in which the average torque is
balanced by the torque of the control springs.
• The meter deflection is therefore a function of the mean of the
squared current.
• The scale of the EDM is usually calibrated in terms of the
square root of the average current squared, and therefore reads
the effective or rms value of the ac.
#
Electrodynamometer
• The EDM has the disadvantage of high power
consumption, due to its construction. The current
under measurement must not only pass through the
movable coil, but also provide the necessary field flux
to get a sufficiently strong magnetic field. Hence high
mmf is required and the source must have a high
current and power.
• In spite of this high power consumption the magnetic
field is still weaker than that of the D' Arsonval
movement because there is no iron in the path, the
entire flux path consisting of air.
#
Electrodynamometer
• The EDM can be
used to measure ac
or dc voltage or
current, as shown in
Figs. 2.6 (a) and (b). Fig 2.6(a)
Fig 2.6(b) #
Electrodynamometer
• Typical values of EDM flux density are
in the range of approximately 60 gauss
as compared to the high flux densities
(1000 - 4000 gauss) of a good
D'Arsonval movement.
• The low flux density of the EDM affects
the developed torque and therefore the
sensitivity of the instrument.
#
EDM Voltmeter
• The addition of a series multiplier converts the basic
EDM into a voltmeter [Fig. 2.6 (b)] which can be used
for ac and dc measurements. The sensitivity of the
EDM voltmeter is low, approximately 10 - 30 /V,
compared to 20 k/V of the D'Arsonval movement.
• It is however very accurate at power line frequency
and can be considered as a secondary standard.
• The basic EDM shown in Fig. 2.6 (a) can be
converted into an ammeter (even without a shunt),
because it is difficult to design a moving coil which
can carry more than approximately 100 mA.
#
EDM Wattmeter
• The EDM movement is extensively used to measure power,
both dc and ac, for any waveform of voltage and current.
• An EDM used as a voltmeter or ammeter has the fixed coils and
movable coil connected in series, thereby reacting to I2.
• When an EDM is used as a single phase wattmeter, the coil
arrangement is different, as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Fig 2.7
#
EDM Wattmeter
• The fixed coils, shown in Fig. 2.7 as separate
elements, are connected in series and carries the total
line current.
• The movable coil located in the magnetic field of the
fixed coils is connected in series with a current-limiting
resistor across the power line, and carries a small
current.
• The deflection of the movable coil is proportional to
the product of the instantaneous value of current in
the movable coil and the total line current.
• The EDM wattmeter consumes some power for the
maintenance of its magnetic field, but this is usually
small compared to the load power.
#
Moving Iron
• Moving iron instruments can be classified into attraction
and repulsion types.
• Repulsion type instruments are the most commonly
used.
• Iron vane ammeters and voltmeters depend for their
operations on the repulsion that exists between two like
magnetic poles.
• The movement consists of a stationary coil of many
turns which carries the current to be measured.
• Two iron vanes are placed inside the coil.
• One vane is rigidly attached to the coil frame, while the
other is connected to the instrument shaft which rotates
freely.
#
Moving Iron
• The current through the coil magnetises both the
vanes with the same polarity, regardless of the
instantaneous direction of current.
• The two magnetised vanes experience a repelling
force, and since only one vane can move, its
displacement is an indicator of the magnitude of the
coil current.
• The repelling force is proportional to the current
squared, but the effects of frequency and hysteresis
tend to produce a pointer deflection that is not linear
and that does not have a perfect square law
relationship.
#
Radial Vane
• Figure 2.8 shows a radial
vane repulsion instrument
which is the most sensitive
of the moving iron
mechanisms and has the
most linear scale.
• One of these like poles is
created by the instrument
coil and appears as an iron
vane fixed in its position
within the coil, as shown in
Fig. 2.8.
Fig 2.8 #
Radial Vane
• The other like pole is induced on the movable iron
piece or vane, which is suspended in the induction
field of the coil and to which the needle of the
instrument is attached.
• Since the instrument is used on ac, the magnetic
polarity of the coil changes with every half cycle and
induces a corresponding amount of repulsion of the
movable vane against the spring tension.
• The deflection of the instrument pointer is therefore
always in the same direction, since there is always
repulsion between the like poles of the fixed and the
movable vane, even though the current in the
inducing coil alternates.
#
Radial Vane
• The deflection of the pointer thus produced is effectively
proportional to the actual current through the instrument. It can
therefore be calibrated directly in amperes and volts.
• The calibrations of a given instrument will however only be
accurate for the ac frequency for which it is designed, because
the impedance will be different at a new frequency.
• The moving coil or repulsion type of instrument is usually
calibrated to read the effective value of amperes and volts, and
is used primarily for rugged and inexpensive meters.
• The iron vane or radial type is forced to turn within the fixed
current carrying coil by the repulsion between like poles. The
aluminium vanes, attached to the lower end-of the pointer, acts
as a damping vane, in its close fitting chamber, to bring the
pointer quickly to rest
#
Concentric Vane
• A variation of the radial
vane instrument is the
concentric vane
repulsion movement.
The instrument has two
concentric vanes.
• One vane is rigidly
attached to the coil
frame while the other
can rotate coaxially
inside the stationary
vane, as shown in Fig.
2.9.
Fig 2.9 #
Concentric Vane
• Both vanes are magnetised by the current in the coil
to the same polarity, causing the vanes to slip
laterally under repulsion.
• Because the moving vane is attached to a pivoted
shaft, this repulsion results in a rotational force that is
a function of the current in the coi
• As in other mechanisms the final pointer position is a
measure of the coil current.
• Since this movement, like all iron vane instruments,
does not distinguish polarity, the concentric vane may
be used on dc and ac, but it is most commonly used
for the latter.
#
Concentric Vane
• Damping is obtained by a light aluminium damping
vane rotating with small clearance in a closed air
chamber.
• When used on ac, the actual operating torque is
pulsating and this may cause vibration of the pointer.
• Rigid (trussed) pointer construction effectively
eliminates such vibration and prevents bending of the
pointer on heavy overloads.
• The concentric vane moving iron instrument is only
moderately sensitive and has square law scale
characteristics.
#
Concentric Vane
• The accuracy of the instrument is limited by several factors:
(i) the magnetisation curve of the iron vane is non-linear,
(ii) at low current values, the peak to peak of the ac produces a
greater displacement per unit current than the average value,
resulting in an ac reading that may be appreciably higher than the
equivalent dc reading at the lower end of the scale.
• Similarly, at the higher end of the scale, the knee of the
magnetisation curve is approached and the peak value of the ac
produces less deflection per unit current than the average value,
so that the ac reading is lower than the equivalent dc value.
• (Hysteresis in iron and eddy currents in the vanes and other
metal parts of the instrument further affect the accuracy of the
reading.)
• The flux density is very small even at full scale values of current,
so that the instrument has a low current sensitivity.
#
Concentric Vane
• There are no current carrying parts in the moving system, hence
the iron vane meter is extremely rugged and reliable.
• It is not easily damaged even under severe overload conditions.
• Adding a suitable multiplier converts the iron vane movement
into a voltmeter; adding a shunt produces different current
ranges.
• When an iron vane movement is used as an ac voltmeter, the
frequency increases the impedance of the instrument and
therefore a lower reading is obtained for a given applied voltage.
• An iron vane voltmeter should therefore always be calibrated at
the frequency at which it is to be used. The usual commercial
instrument may be used within its accuracy tolerance from 25—
125 Hz.
#
AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers
• Rectifier type instruments
generally use a PMMC
movement along with a
rectifier arrangement.
• Silicon diodes are preferred
because of their low reverse
current and high forward
current ratings.
• Figure 4.16 (a) gives an ac
voltmeter circuit consisting of
a multiplier, a bridge rectifier
and a PMMC movement
Fig 4.16 (a)
#
AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers
• The bridge rectifier provides
a full wave pulsating dc. Due
to the inertia of the movable
coil, the meter indicates a
steady deflection
proportional to the average
value of the current (Fig.
4.16 (b)).
• The meter scale is usually
calibrated to give the RMS
value of an alternating sine
wave input.
Fig 4.16 (b)
#
AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers
• Practical rectifiers are non-
linear devices particularly at
low values of forward current
(Fig. 4.16 (c)).
• Hence the meter scale is
non-linear and is generally
crowded at the lower end of
a low range voltmeter.
• In this part the meter has low
sensitivity because of the
high forward resistance of
the diode.
• Also, the resistance depends
on the temperature. Fig 4.16 (c)
#
AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers
• The rectifier exhibits
capacitance properties when
reverse biased, and tends to
bypass higher frequencies.
The meter reading may be in
error by as much as 0.5%
decrease for every 1 kHz
rise in frequency.
• A general rectifier type ac
voltmeter arrangement is
given in Fig. 4,17.
Fig 4.17
#
AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers
• Diode Dx conducts during the positive half of the input
cycle and causes the meter to deflect according to
the average value of this half cycle.
• The meter movement is shunted by a resistor, Rsh, in
order to draw more current through the diode D1 and
move the operating point into the linear portion of the
characteristic curve. In the negative half cycle, diode
D2 conducts and the current through the measuring
circuit, which is in an opposite direction, bypasses the
meter movement.
#
AC Voltmeter Using Half Wave
Rectifier
• If a diode D1 is added to the dc voltmeter, as shown in Fig. 4.18,
we have an ac voltmeter using half wave rectifier circuit capable
of measuring ac voltages.
• The sensitivity of the dc voltmeter is given by
• A multiple of 10 times this value means a 10 V dc input would
cause exactly full scale deflection when connected with proper
polarity.
• Assume D1 to be an ideal diode with negligible forward bias
resistance.
• If this dc input is replaced by a 10 V rms sine wave input. The
voltages appearing at the output is due to the positive half cycle
due to rectifying action.
#
AC Voltmeter Using Half Wave
Rectifier
• The peak value of 10 V rms sine wave is
Ep = 10 V rms x 1.414 = 14.14 V peak
• The dc will respond to the average value of the ac input,
therefore
Eav = Ep x 0.636 = 14.14 x 0.636 = 8.99 V
• Since the diode conducts only during the positive half cycle, the
average value over the entire cycle is one half the average
value of 8.99 V, i.e. about 4.5 V.
• Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full scale if 10 V dc is
applied and 4.5 V when a 10 Vrms sinusoidal signal is applied.
This means that an ac voltmeter is not as sensitive as a dc
voltmeter.
• As Edc = 0.45 Erms
The value of the multiplier resistor can be calculated as
#
Example 3.1
• Calculate the value of the multiplier resistor
for a 10 V rms range on the voltmeter shown
in Fig. 4.19.
Fig 4.19
#
Solution
#
AC Voltmeter Using Full Wave
Rectifier
• Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.20.
• The peak value of a 10 V rms signal is
Ep= 1.414 x Erms
= 1.414 x 10
= 14.14 V peak
• Average value is
Eav = 0.636 x Ep
= 14.14x0.636
= 8.99 V
= 9V
• Therefore, we can see that a 10 V rms Fig 4.20
voltage is equal to a 9 V dc for full scale
deflection, i.e. the pointer will deflect to
90% of full scale, or
Sensitivity (ac) = 0.9 x Sensitivity (dc)
#
Example 3.2
• Calculate the value
of the multiplier
resistor for a 10 V
rms ac range on the
voltmeter in Fig.
4.21
Fig 4.21
#
Solution
#
Multirange AC Voltmeter
• Figure 4.22 is circuit for measuring ac voltages for different
ranges. Resistances R1, R2, R3, and R4 form a chain of
multipliers for voltage ranges of 1000 V, 250 V, 50 V, and 10 V
respectively.
• On the 2.5 V range, resistance R5 acts as a multiplier and
corresponds to the multiplier Rs shown in Fig. 4.17.
• Rsh is the meter shunt and acts to improve the rectifier operation.
Fig 4.22 Fig 4.17
#
Average Responding Voltmeter
• A simplified version
of a circuit used in a
typical average
responding
voltmeters is given
in Fig. 4.23.
Fig 4.23
#
Average Responding Voltmeter
• The applied waveform is amplified in a high gain stabilised
amplifier to a reasonably high level and then rectified and fed to
a dc mA meter calibrated in terms of rms input voltage.
• In this meter instrument, the rectified current is averaged by a
filter to produce a steady deflection of the meter pointer.
• A dc component in the applied voltage is excluded from the
measurement by an input blocking capacitor preceding the high
gain amplifier.
• The ac amplifier has a large amount of negative feedback,
which ensures gain stability for measurement accuracy, and an
increased frequency range of the instrument.
• The inclusion of the meter in the feedback path minimises the
effect of diode non-linearity and meter impedance variations on
the circuit performance.
#
Average Responding Voltmeter
• Capacitors in the meter circuit tend to act as storage or filter
capacitors for the rectifier diodes as well as coupling capacitors
for the feedback signal.
• The diodes acts as switches to maintain unidirectional meter
current despite changes in the instantaneous polarity of the
input voltage.
• Errors in the reading of an average responding voltmeter may
be due to the application of complex waveforms, i.e. a distorted
or nonsinusoidal input or the presence of hum or noise.
• The accuracy with which an average responding voltmeter
indicates the rms value of a wave with harmonic content
depends not only on the amplitude of the harmonic but also on
the phase.
#
Peak Responding Voltmeter
• The basic difference between peak responding
voltmeters and average responding voltmeters is the
use of storage capacitors with the rectifying diode in
the former case.
• The capacitor charges through the diode to the peak
value of the applied voltage and the meter circuit then
responds to the capacitor voltage.
• The two most common types of peak responding
voltmeters are given in Figs 4.24 (a) and (b).
#
Peak Responding Voltmeter
• Figure 4.24 (a) shows a
dc coupled peak
voltmeter, in which the
capacitor charges to the
total peak voltage
above ground
reference.
• In this case the meter
reading will be affected
by the presence of dc Fig 4.24 (a)
with ac voltage.
#
Peak Responding Voltmeter
• In Fig. 4.24 (b), an ac
coupled peak voltmeter
circuit is shown. In both the
circuits, the capacitor
discharges very slowly
through the high impedance
input of the dc amplifier, so
that a negligible small
amount of current supplied
by the circuit under test
keeps the capacitor charged
to the peak ac voltage.
• The dc amplifier is used in Fig 4.24 (b)
the peak responding meter
to develop the necessary
meter current.
#
Peak Responding Voltmeter
• The primary advantage of a peak responding voltmeter is that
the rectifying diode and the storage capacitor may be taken out
of the instrument and placed in the probe when no ac pre-
amplification is required.
• The measured ac signal then travels no farther than the diode.
• The peak responding voltmeter is then able to measure
frequencies of up to 100s of MHz with a minimum of circuit
loading.
• The disadvantage of peak responding voltmeters is the error
caused due to harmonic distortion in the input waveforms and
limited sensitivity of the instrument because of imperfect diode
characteristics.
#
True RMS Voltmeter
• Complex waveform are most accurately measured with an rms
voltmeter.
• This instrument produces a meter indication by sensing
waveform heating power, which is proportional to the square of
the rms value of the voltage.
• This heating power can be measured by amplifying and feeding
it to a thermocouple, whose output voltages is then proportional
to the Erms.
• However, thermocouples are non-linear devices.
• This difficulty can be overcome in some instruments by placing
two thermocouples in the same thermal environment.
• Figure 4.25 shows a block diagram of a true rms responding
voltmeter.
#
True RMS Voltmeter
Fig 4.25
#
True RMS Voltmeter
• The effect of non-linear behaviour of the
thermocouple in the input circuit (measuring
thermocouple) is cancelled by similar non-linear
effects of the thermocouple in the feedback circuit
(balancing thermocouple).
• The two couples form part of a bridge in the input
circuit of a dc amplifier.
• The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied to
the heating element of the measuring thermocouple.
• The application of heat produces an output voltage
that upsets the balance of the bridge.
#
True RMS Voltmeter
• The dc amplifier amplifies the unbalanced voltage; this voltage
is fed back to the heating element of the balancing
thermocouple, which heats the thermocouple, so that the bridge
is balanced again, i.e. the outputs of both the thermocouples are
the same.
• At this instant, the ac current in the input thermocouple is equal
to the dc current in the heating element of the feedback
thermocouple.
• This dc current is therefore directly proportional to the effective
or rms value of the input voltage, and is indicated by the meter
in the output circuit of the dc amplifier.
• If the peak amplitude of the ac signal does not exceed the
dynamic range of the ac amplifier, the true rms value of the ac
signal can be measured independently.
#
Power Definition
• Power is defined as the amount of work done in some unit of
time. Mathematically,
Power, P = work/time Watt ……………………..(3.5)
• where work in joules, time in seconds and unit of power in watts
(W). Meanwhile, electrical power is given as follows,
P = work/time , but w = QV and t = Q/I …..(3.6)
• where Q is charge in coulombs, V is potential different in volts
and I is current in amperes. Substituting equation (3.6) into
equation (3.5),
P = (QV)/(Q/I) = IV Watt ………………………(3.7)
• Using Ohm’s law, two more equations can be derived.
P = I2R and P = E2/R …------…………………..(3.8)
#
Power in AC Circuit
• There are three types of power in ac circuit,
– real power (P – Watts),
– reactive power (Q – VARs) and
– apparent power (S – Volt-Amperes).
• In any ac circuit consist of resistor, inductor and/or capacitor; the
following terms are always true:
• Total real power dissipated,
P = VI cos (Watts) …………………………..(3.9)
• Reactive power delivered,
Q = VI sin (VARs) .......................................(3.10)
• Total apparent delivered,
|S| = VI = (P2 + Q2)½ (Volt-Amperes) …...………...(3.11)
• Notice that, V and I must be in rms values, while is the power factor of
circuit.
#
Power Factor Correction
• Most domestic loads (such as washing
machines, air conditioners, and refrigerators)
and industrial loads (such as induction motors)
are inductive and operate at a low lagging power
factor.
• Although the inductive nature of the load cannot
be changed, power factor of the load can be
increased by doing something.
• The process of increasing the power factor
without altering the voltage or current to the
original load is known as power factor correction.
#
Example 3.7
R = 100 W
120 V XL = 100 W
VS
60 Hz L = 0.265 H
Fig 3.9 A circuit consists of resistor and inductor
From Figure 3.9, Table 3.9
Power factor (pf) = cos 45o = 0.707
Real power, P = 72 W
Reactive power, Q = 72 VARs
Apparent power, S = 102 VA #
Example 3.7 solution
In order to make the power factor into unity,
capacitors are added to the circuit as shown
in Figure 3.10, a capacitor of 26.5 F is
added (XC = 100 ). Figure 3.10.
R = 100 W
120 V XL = 100 W
VS
60 Hz L = 0.265 H
XC = 100 W
C = 26.5 mF
Figure 3.10: A circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor with power factor #
correction
Example 3.7 solution
R = 100 W
120 V XL = 100 W
VS
60 Hz L = 0.265 H
XC = 100 W
C = 26.5 mF
Figure 3.10: A circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor with power factor correction
Table 3.10
Power factor (pf) = cos 0o = 1
Real power, P = 144 W
Reactive power, QXL = +144 VARs
Reactive power, QXC = -144 VARs
Reactive power, Q = QXL – QXC = 144 – 144 = 0 VARs #
Example 3.7 solution
This situation (Figure 3.10 and Table
3.10) is called power factor correction,
which must be used in large installations
where there are many inductive loads
present.
#
Electrodynamometer
Wattmeter
• The electrodynamometer wattmeter employs a current
circuit and a potential circuit.
• The current circuit consists of two fixed coils of heavy
wire that are connected in series with the line.
• The potential circuit consists of the two moving coils,
usually wound with much smaller-diameter wire,
connected in series with a high-valued non-inductive
resistance, and placed across the line.
• Figure 3.11(b) also shows the simple connection of the
wattmeter to measure power in a single-phase circuit.
• The electrodynamometer wattmeter can be used to
measure power in a DC as well as in a AC circuit
irrespective of the waveform.
#
Electrodynamometer
Wattmeter
Figure 3.11: Alternating current and direct current wattmeter
#
Measurement of Power in
Three-Phase Circuits
The power in three-phase circuits can be
measured in a variety of ways. Two of the
most common methods are
i) Three-wattmeter Method
ii) Two-wattmeter Method
#
Three-wattmeter Method
• The connection for the measurement of the total average power to delta
or star-connected loads is shown in Figures 3.12(a) and 3.12(b).
• The three-wattmeter readings add up to give the total power supplied.
• The potential coils are measuring Vph and the current coils Iph. The total
power given by:
PT = 3 x Eph x Iph x cos
• where the load is balanced, a single wattmeter will do - merely by
measuring power to one phase and then multiplying by three.
• The three-wattmeter method is not always practical because very often
the junction points to a delta or star are not accessible.
• In these circumstances, it is more convenient to use the two-wattmeter
method.
#
Three-wattmeter Method
Fig 3.12
#
Two-wattmeter Method
• The two-wattmeter method can be used
in a three-wire system, delta-connected
or star-connected and balanced or
unbalanced loads.
• For a four-wire system, three
wattmeters are needed.
• The connection of the two-wattmeter
method is shown in Figure 3.13.
#
Two-wattmeter Method
Fig 3.13 #
Wattmeter specifications
• Normally inexpensive wattmeters have
accuracies of +3%.
• More accurate instrument has an accuracy of
0.25% of full-scale deflection.
• All can be used to measure DC and AC
power, in some cases up to 2500 Hz.
• More are multirange instruments with a high
and low ranges depending on the voltage
range used.
#
Review Questions
1. State the operating principle of an electrodynamometer.
2. Why is the electrodynamometer called a square law device?
3. Differentiate between moving iron and moving coil measurement.
4. State the difference between radial and concentric iron-vane
movement.
5. Which type of meter movement is most widely used in ac
instruments for current and voltage measurements?
6. What are the effects of using a voltmeter of low sensitivity?
7. Why is a PMMC movement shunted by a resistor when used as a ac
voltmeter?
8. How does the sensitivity of an ac voltmeter compare with the
sensitivity of a dc
voltmeter?
9. How does the sensitivity of an ac voltmeter using a full wave rectifier
compare with one using a half wave rectifier?
10. Compare a true rms meter with an average responding meter.
#
Practice Problems
1. A meter movement has an
internal resistance of 100 and
requires 1 mA dc full scale
deflection. Shunting resistor Rsh
placed across the movement
has a
value of 100 . Diodes D1 and
D2 have an average forward
resistance of 400 and are
assumed to have infinite reverse
resistance in the reverse direc
tion. For 10 V ac range,
calculate
(i) the value of the multiplier,
(ii) the voltmeter sensitivity on ac
range. (Rs = 1800, S= 225 O/V). Fig 4.41
• Refer to Fig. 4.41.
#
Practice Problems
2. The circuit diagram of Fig, 4.42
shows a full wave rectifier ac
voltmeter. The meter movement
has an internal resistance of
250 and required 1 mA for full
scale deflection. The diodes
each have a forward resistance
of 50 and infinite reverse
resistance. Calculate:
(i) the series resistance required
for full scale meter deflection
when 25 V rms is applied to the
meter terminals,
(ii) the ohms per volt rating of this
ac voltmeter.
Fig 4.42