BT10403

Statistik Perniagaan dan Ekonomi

(Statistics for Business and Economics)
Week 3, Semester II, 2015/2016
Faculty of Business, Economics &
Accountancy,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Dr. Qaiser Munir

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 1

Chapter 2
Organizing and
Visualizing Variables

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 2

 Learning Objectives

In this chapter you learn:

To construct tables and charts for categorical data
To construct tables and charts for numerical data
The principles of properly presenting graphs
To organize and analyze many variables

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 3

Categorical Data Are Organized By
Utilizing Tables
DCOVA
Categorical
Data

Tallying Data

One Two
Categorical Categorical
Variable Variables

Summary Contingency
Table Table

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 4

 Why Collect Data?
A marketing research analyst needs to assess the effectiveness
of a new television advertisement.

A pharmaceutical manufacturer needs to determine whether a

new drug is more effective than those currently in use.

An operations manager wants to monitor a manufacturing

process to find out whether the quality of the product being
manufactured is conforming to company standards.

An auditor wants to review the financial transactions of a

company in order to determine whether the company is in
compliance with generally accepted accounting principles.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 5

 Sources of Data

Primary Sources: The data collector is the one using the data
for analysis
Data from a political survey
Data collected from an experiment
Observed data
Secondary Sources: The person performing data analysis is
not the data collector
Analyzing census data
Examining data from print journals or data published on the internet.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 6

 Organizing Categorical Data:
Summary Table
DCOVA
A summary table tallies the frequencies or percentages of items in a set
of categories so that you can see differences between categories.

Main Reason Young Adults Shop Online

Reason For Shopping Online? Percent

Better Prices 37%
Avoiding holiday crowds or hassles 29%
Convenience 18%
Better selection 13%
Ships directly 3%

Source: Data extracted and adapted from Main Reason Young Adults Shop Online?
USA Today, December 5, 2012, p. 1A.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 7

 A Contingency Table Helps Organize
Two or More Categorical Variables
DCOVA
Used to study patterns that may exist between
the responses of two or more categorical
variables

Cross tabulates or tallies jointly the responses

of the categorical variables

For two variables the tallies for one variable are

located in the rows and the tallies for the
second variable are located in the columns
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 8
 Contingency Table - Example
DCOVA
A random sample of 400
invoices is drawn. Contingency Table Showing
Frequency of Invoices Categorized
Each invoice is categorized By Size and The Presence Of Errors
as a small, medium, or large No
amount. Errors Errors Total

Each invoice is also Small 170 20 190

Amount
examined to identify if there
Medium 100 40 140
are any errors. Amount
This data are then organized Large 65 5 70
in the contingency table to Amount
the right. 335 65 400
Total

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 9

 Contingency Table Based On
Percentage Of Overall Total
DCOVA
No
Errors Errors Total 42.50% = 170 / 400
Small 170 20 190 25.00% = 100 / 400
Amount 16.25% = 65 / 400
Medium 100 40 140
Amount No
Large 65 5 70 Errors Errors Total
Amount Small 42.50% 5.00% 47.50%
Total 335 65 400 Amount
Medium 25.00% 10.00% 35.00%
Amount
83.75% of sampled invoices
Large 16.25% 1.25% 17.50%
have no errors and 47.50% Amount
of sampled invoices are for Total 83.75% 16.25% 100.0%
small amounts.
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 10
 Contingency Table Based On
Percentage of Row Totals
DCOVA
No
Errors Errors Total 89.47% = 170 / 190
Small 170 20 190 71.43% = 100 / 140
Amount 92.86% = 65 / 70
Medium 100 40 140
Amount No
Large 65 5 70 Errors Errors Total
Amount Small 89.47% 10.53% 100.0%
Total 335 65 400 Amount
Medium 71.43% 28.57% 100.0%
Amount
Medium invoices have a larger
Large 92.86% 7.14% 100.0%
chance (28.57%) of having Amount
errors than small (10.53%) or Total 83.75% 16.25% 100.0%
large (7.14%) invoices.
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 11
 Contingency Table Based On
Percentage Of Column Totals
DCOVA
No
Errors Errors Total 50.75% = 170 / 335
Small 170 20 190 30.77% = 20 / 65
Amount
Medium 100 40 140
Amount No
Large 65 5 70 Errors Errors Total
Amount Small 50.75% 30.77% 47.50%
Total 335 65 400 Amount
Medium 29.85% 61.54% 35.00%
Amount
There is a 61.54% chance
Large 19.40% 7.69% 17.50%
that invoices with errors are Amount
of medium size. Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 12

 Tables Used For Organizing
Numerical Data
DCOVA
Numerical Data

Ordered Array Frequency Cumulative

Distributions Distributions

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 13

 Organizing Numerical Data:
Ordered Array
DCOVA
An ordered array is a sequence of data, in rank order, from the
smallest value to the largest value.
Shows range (minimum value to maximum value)
May help identify outliers (unusual observations)

Age of Day Students

Surveyed
16 17 17 18 18 18
College
Students 19 19 20 20 21 22
22 25 27 32 38 42
Night Students
18 18 19 19 20 21
23 28 32 33 41 45
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 14
 Organizing Numerical Data:
Frequency Distribution
DCOVA
The frequency distribution is a summary table in which the data are
arranged into numerically ordered classes.

You must give attention to selecting the appropriate number of class

groupings for the table, determining a suitable width of a class grouping,
and establishing the boundaries of each class grouping to avoid
overlapping.

The number of classes depends on the number of values in the data. With
a larger number of values, typically there are more classes. In general, a
frequency distribution should have at least 5 but no more than 15 classes.

To determine the width of a class interval, you divide the range (Highest
valueLowest value) of the data by the number of class groupings desired.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 15

 Summarizing Quantitative Data

Guidelines when constructing frequency distribution:

1. Equal-size classes. All classes in the frequency distribution must be of equal
width. The exception here is the first or last class.
2. The classes must be continuous. There are no gaps in a frequency
distribution.
3. Classes are mutually exclusive. (This means that no data value can fall into
two different classes).
4. The classes must be all inclusive or exhaustive. This means that all data
values must be included.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 16

 Constructing a Frequency Table

Decide on the number of classes (k).

A useful recipe to determine the number of classes

(k) is the 2 to the k rule such that 2k > n
There were 36 houses sold, so n = 36.
We try k = 5, then 25 = 32, somewhat less than 36. Hence, 5 is not
enough classes.
We try k = 6, then 26 = 64, which is greater than 36.
The recommended number of classes is 6.

2-17
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 17
Summarizing Quantitative Data
The number of classes usually ranges from 5
to 20.
Approximating the class width:

Largest value Smallest value

Number of classes

Width = 735 330/6 = 67.5

Round up to some convenient number, such as a multiple

of 10 or 100. Use a class width of 100.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 18

 Organizing Numerical Data:
Frequency Distribution Example
DCOVA

Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly selects 20

winter days and records the daily high temperature

24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 19

 Organizing Numerical Data:
Frequency Distribution Example
DCOVA
Sort raw data in ascending order:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)
Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
Determine class boundaries (limits):
Class 1: 10 to less than 20
Class 2: 20 to less than 30
Class 3: 30 to less than 40
Class 4: 40 to less than 50
Class 5: 50 to less than 60
Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55
Count observations & assign to classes

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 20

 Organizing Numerical Data: Frequency
Distribution Example
DCOVA
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class Midpoints Frequency

10 but less than 20 15 3

20 but less than 30 25 6
30 but less than 40 35 5
40 but less than 50 45 4
50 but less than 60 55 2
Total 20

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 21

Summarizing Quantitative Data
A relative frequency distribution identifies the
proportion or fraction of values that fall into each
class.
Class frequency
Class relative frequency
Total number of observations

A cumulative relative frequency distribution

gives the proportion or fraction of values that fall
below the upper limit of each class.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 22

 Organizing Numerical Data: Relative &
Percent Frequency Distribution Example
DCOVA
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3 .15 15%
20 but less than 30 6 .30 30%
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25%
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20%
50 but less than 60 2 .10 10%
Total 20 1.00 100%

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 23

 Summarizing Quantitative Data
A cumulative frequency distribution specifies how
many observations fall below the upper limit of a
particular class.

Question: How many of the houses sold for less than

$600,000?
29 houses

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 24

 Organizing Numerical Data: Cumulative
Frequency Distribution Example
DCOVA
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20 3 15% 3 15%

20 but less than 30 6 30% 9 45%
30 but less than 40 5 25% 14 70%
40 but less than 50 4 20% 18 90%
50 but less than 60 2 10% 20 100%
Total 20 100 20 100%

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 25

Why Use a Frequency Distribution?
DCOVA
It condenses the raw data into a more
useful form
It allows for a quick visual interpretation of
the data
It enables the determination of the major
characteristics of the data set including
where the data are concentrated /
clustered

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 26

 Frequency Distributions:
Some Tips
DCOVA
Different class boundaries may provide different pictures for
the same data (especially for smaller data sets)

Shifts in data concentration may show up when different

class boundaries are chosen

As the size of the data set increases, the impact of

alterations in the selection of class boundaries is greatly
reduced

When comparing two or more groups with different sample

sizes, you must use either a relative frequency or a
percentage distribution

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 27

 Visualizing Categorical Data
Through Graphical Displays
DCOVA
Categorical
Data
Visualizing Data

Summary Contingency
Table For One Table For Two
Variable Variables

Bar Pareto Side By Side

Chart Chart Bar Chart
Pie Chart

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 28

 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Bar Chart
DCOVA
The bar chart visualizes a categorical variable as a series of bars. The
length of each bar represents either the frequency or percentage of
values for each category. Each bar is separated by a space called a gap.

Reason For Percent

Shopping Online?
Better Prices 37%
Avoiding holiday 29%
crowds or hassles
Convenience 18%
Better selection 13%
Ships directly 3%

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 29

 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pie Chart
DCOVA
The pie chart is a circle broken up into slices that represent categories.
The size of each slice of the pie varies according to the percentage in
each category.

Reason For Shopping Percent

Online?
Better Prices 37%
Avoiding holiday crowds or 29%
hassles
Convenience 18%
Better selection 13%
Ships directly 3%

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 30

 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pareto Chart
DCOVA
Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale)
A vertical bar chart, where categories are
shown in descending order of frequency
A cumulative polygon is shown in the same
graph
Used to separate the vital few from the trivial
many

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 31

 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pareto Chart (cont) DCOVA
Ordered Summary Table For Causes
Of Incomplete ATM Transactions
Cumulative
Cause Frequency Percent Percent
Warped card jammed 365 50.41% 50.41%
Card unreadable 234 32.32% 82.73%
ATM malfunctions 32 4.42% 87.15%
ATM out of cash 28 3.87% 91.02%
Invalid amount requested 23 3.18% 94.20%
Wrong keystroke 23 3.18% 97.38%
Lack of funds in account 19 2.62% 100.00%
Total 724 100.00%
Source: Data extracted from A. Bhalla, Dont Misuse the Pareto Principle, Six Sigma Forum
Magazine, May 2009, pp. 1518.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 32

 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pareto Chart (cont) DCOVA

The Vital
Few

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 33

 Visualizing Categorical Data:
Side By Side Bar Charts DCOVA
The side by side bar chart represents the data from a contingency table.

No
Errors Errors Total
Invoice Size Split Out By Errors
Small 50.75% 30.77% 47.50% & No Errors
Amount
Medium 29.85% 61.54% 35.00% Errors

Amount
Large 19.40% 7.69% 17.50% No Errors

Amount
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Large Medium Small

Invoices with errors are much more likely to be of

medium size (61.54% vs 30.77% and 7.69%)

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 34

 Visualizing Numerical Data
By Using Graphical Displays
DCOVA
Numerical Data

Frequency Distributions
Ordered Array and
Cumulative Distributions

Stem-and-Leaf
Histogram Polygon Ogive
Display

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 35

 Stem-and-Leaf Display
DCOVA

A simple way to see how the data are distributed

and where concentrations of data exist

METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

into leading digits (the stems) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 36

 Organizing Numerical Data:
Stem and Leaf Display
DCOVA
A stem-and-leaf display organizes data into groups (called
stems) so that the values within each group (the leaves)
branch out to the right on each row.
Age of College Students

Age of Day Students Day Students Night Students

Surveyed
16 17 17 18 18 18 Stem Leaf
College Stem Leaf
Students 19 19 20 20 21 22
1 67788899 1 8899
22 25 27 32 38 42
Night Students 2 0012257 2 0138
18 18 19 19 20 21
3 28 3 23
23 28 32 33 41 45
4 2
4 15

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 37

 Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Histogram
DCOVA

A vertical bar chart of the data in a frequency distribution is

called a histogram.

In a histogram there are no gaps between adjacent bars.

The class boundaries (or class midpoints) are shown on the

horizontal axis.

The vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or

percentage.

The height of the bars represent the frequency, relative

frequency, or percentage.
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 38
 Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Histogram
DCOVA
Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency

10 but less than 20 3 .15 15

20 but less than 30 6 .30 30
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20 8
50 but less than 60 2 .10 10 Histogram: Age Of Students
Total 20 1.00 100
6

Frequency
4
(In a percentage
histogram the vertical
axis would be defined to 2
show the percentage of
observations per class)
0
5 15 25 35 45 55 More

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 39

 Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Polygon
DCOVA

A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of

each class represent the data in that class and then connecting
the sequence of midpoints at their respective class
percentages.

The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive, displays the

variable of interest along the X axis, and the cumulative
percentages along the Y axis.

Useful when there are two or more groups to compare.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 40

Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Frequency Polygon DCOVA
Useful When Comparing Two or More Groups

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 41

Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Percentage Polygon
DCOVA

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 42

Summarizing Quantitative Data
An ogive is a visual representation of a
cumulative frequency or a cumulative
relative frequency distribution.

Plot the cumulative frequency (or cumulative

relative frequency) of each class above the
upper limit of the corresponding class.

The neighboring points are then connected.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 43

Summarizing Quantitative Data
Here is an ogive for the house-price data.

Use the ogive to approximate the percentage of houses

that sold for less than $550,000.
Answer: 60%
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 44
Visualizing Two Numerical Variables
By Using Graphical Displays
DCOVA

Two Numerical
Variables

Scatter Time-
Plot Series
Plot

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 45

 Visualizing Two Numerical
Variables: The Scatter Plot
DCOVA
Scatter plots are used for numerical data consisting of paired
observations taken from two numerical variables

One variable is measured on the vertical axis and the other

variable is measured on the horizontal axis

Scatter plots are used to examine possible relationships

between two numerical variables

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 46

 Scatter Plot Example
DCOVA

Volume Cost per

per day day Cost per Day vs. Production Volume
23 125
250
26 140
200
Cost per Day

29 146
150
33 160
100
38 167
50
42 170
0
50 188
20 30 40 50 60 70
55 195
Volume per Day
60 200

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 47

Visualizing Two Numerical
Variables: The Time Series Plot
DCOVA
A Time-Series Plot is used to study
patterns in the values of a numeric
variable over time

The Time-Series Plot:

Numeric variable is measured on the

vertical axis and the time period is

measured on the horizontal axis

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 48

 Time Series Plot Example
DCOVA

Number of
Year Franchises Number of Franchises, 1996-2004
120
1996 43
100
1997 54 Franchises
Number of

80
1998 60 60
1999 73 40

2000 82 20
0
2001 95
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
2002 107 Year
2003 99
2004 95

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 49

Organizing Many Categorical Variables:
The Multidimensional Contingency Table
DCOVA
A multidimensional contingency table is constructed by
tallying the responses of three or more categorical variables.

In Excel creating a Pivot Table to yields an interactive

display of this type.

While Minitab will not create an interactive table, it has many

specialized statistical & graphical procedures (not covered in
this book) to analyze & visualize multidimensional data.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 50

Using Excel Pivot Tables To Organize &
Visualize Many Variables
DCOVA
A pivot table:
Summarizes variables as a multidimensional summary

table
Allows interactive changing of the level of
summarization and formatting of the variables
Allows you to interactively slice your data to
summarize subsets of data that meet specified criteria
Can be used to discover possible patterns and
relationships in multidimensional data that simpler
tables and charts would fail to make apparent.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 51

 A Two Variable Contingency Table
For The Retirement Funds Data
DCOVA
There are many more growth funds of average
risk than of low or high risk

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 52

A Multidimensional Contingency Table
Tallies Responses Of Three or More
Categorical Variables
DCOVA

Growth funds
risk pattern depends
on market

Value funds risk

risk pattern is
different from that of
growth funds.

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 53

 Guidelines For Avoiding The
Obscuring Of Data DCOVA

Avoid chartjunk
Use the simplest possible visualization
Include a title
Label all axes
Include a scale for each axis if the chart contains axes
Begin the scale for a vertical axis at zero
Use a constant scale

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 54

Graphical Errors: Chart Junk
DCOVA

Bad Presentation Good Presentation

Minimum Wage Minimum Wage
1960: $1.00
$
4
1970: $1.60
2
1980: $3.10
0
1990: $3.80 1960 1970 1980 1990

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 55

 Graphical Errors:
No Relative Basis
DCOVA

Bad Presentation Good Presentation

As received by As received by
Freq. students. % students.
30%
300

200 20%

100 10%

0 0%
FR SO JR SR FR SO JR SR

FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 56

 Graphical Errors:
Compressing the Vertical Axis
DCOVA

Bad Presentation Good Presentation

Quarterly Sales Quarterly Sales
$ $
200 50

100 25

0 0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 57

 Graphical Errors: No Zero Point
on the Vertical Axis
DCOVA

Bad Presentation
Good Presentations

Monthly Sales $ Monthly Sales

$ 45
45
42
42 39
39 36
36 0
J F M A M J J F M A M J

Graphing the first six months of sales

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 58

 In Excel It Is Easy To
Inadvertently Create Distortions

Excel often will create a graph where the

vertical axis does not start at 0

Excel offers the opportunity to turn simple

charts into 3-D charts and in the process can
create distorted images

Unusual charts offered as choices by excel will

most often create distorted images

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 59

End of Chapter 2

THANK YOU!

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 2, Slide 60