Steam Turbines

Dr. Khawar Naveed

7.1 Introduction
Steam Turbine is a unit, which produces power from a
continuous supply of steam being delivered to the
turbine at a high pressure and exhausted to the
condenser at low pressure.
General Principle
A jet of steam has momentum (mass velocity),
which is a vector quantity
A change in mass, velocity or direction results in
change in momentum
The force required to cause this change is proportional
to the rate of change of momentum
The force required to produce the change of
momentum of the jet is provided by the blades, which
are attached to the wheel in such a way that tangential
force is continuously applied to the wheel and constant
torque is obtained.
Classification of Steam Turbine
There are many ways in which turbines are classified; such as:
Shaft Arrangement
Pressure
Principle of operation
Shaft Arrangement
Tandem Compound (All turbine stages are mounted on one shaft)
Cross Compound (Stages are mounted on different shafts, speed of each shaft may be different)
Pressure
High Pressure
Intermediate Pressure
Low Pressure
Principle of Operation
Impulse turbine
Reaction Turbine
Turbine Type
Condensing and Non-Condensing
A) Condensing Discharges to Condenser
B) Non Condensing - Discharges to some process, say HP turbine exhausts to LP turbine,
Reheater
High pressure (HP) turbines, and IP turbines exhaust to reheater/ LP turbine, whereas, LP
turbine exhaust to Condenser
It is also Straight flow turbine Another area of classification
Tandem and Cross Compound
7.2 Flow through Nozzles
Definition: A nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross sectional area in which a steadily
flowing fluid can be made to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct.
Uses/Applications: Where high velocity stream of fluid is required, such as steam
turbines, gas turbines, etc.
Diffuser and Nozzle: When the fluid is decelerated in a duct causing rise in pressure along
the stream, then the duct is called diffuser. It is used in centrifugal compressors

We shall concentrate on steam nozzles, starting from basic concepts

Nozzle Shapes
Consider a stream of fluid at pressure p1 enthalpy h1 and with a low
velocity C1.
It is required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to
accelerate to a high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct.
It can be assumed that heat loss is negligible, i.e. Q = 0 and no work
is done within nozzle i.e. W = 0,
Then the energy equation reduces to:
12 2
1 + = +
2 2

It is required to find the shape of the duct which will cause the fluid
to accelerate i.e. velocity will increase along the duct
 We know that volume flow rate Q = Area
If specific volume is v, then mass flow rate is

=


Area per unit mass flow will be =

Substituting the value of C Area per unit mass flow is equal to:

When we plot the above equation = along the duct, assuming specific heat remains

constant i.e. pv = constant.
Choosing fixed inlet conditions (that happens in turbines) the variation of A, v, and Velocity
can be plotted, between pressures p1 and p2
 It can be seen when v increases less rapidly than C,
then the area decreases;
when v increases more rapidly than C, then the area
increases.
A nozzle, the area of which varies as shown is called
a convergent divergent nozzle.
At the throat, the velocity is sonic, if operating
under design pressure ratio.
Flow before the throat is subsonic and after the throat
it is supersonic

Why water nozzles are convergent only

Critical Pressure Ratio
Flow through the nozzle is due to pressure difference
across the nozzle.
For a nozzle that is convergent only, then the fluid
will attain sonic velocity at exit if the pressure drop
across the nozzle is large enough.
The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic
velocity is attained to the inlet pressure of a nozzle is
called the critical pressure ratio.
The critical pressure ratio is dependent on the type of
fluid passing through it, which is given by:

/(1)
2
=
1 +1
Where is cp/cv
 For air, =1.4. Substituting the value of , in above equation, the critical pressure ratio is
0.5283,
This implies, that for a convergent nozzle, the pressure at the throat should be 0.5283 bar
for sonic velocity of air passing through it.
With higher pressure, the flow will reduce, but for lower pressure it will not increase. We
call it Choking
Even for a correctly designed convergent-divergent nozzle with inlet pressure 10 bar, the
pressure at the throat is 5.283 bar.
For Carbon Dioxide, =1.3, and therefore, the pressure at throat will be 0.5457, if the
pressure at inlet is 1 bar
For steam, we use k, instead of
For Dry Saturated Steam, k = 1.135 but for superheated steam, it is 1.3
Nozzles off Design Pressure Ratio
When the back pressure of a nozzle is below the design value the nozzle is said to under-
expand.
In under-expansion the fluid expands to the design pressure in the nozzle and then
expands violently and irreversibly down to the back pressure on leaving the nozzle
When the back pressure of a nozzle is above the design value the nozzle is said to over-
expand.
In over-expansion in a convergent nozzle the exit pressure is greater than the critical
pressure and the effect is to reduce the mass flow through the nozzle.
In overexpansion in a convergent-divergent nozzle there is always an expansion followed
by a recompression.
The two types of nozzles are discussed
Convergent Nozzle
The pressure variations of a fluid flowing through a convergent
nozzle are shown
Assuming that the design back pressure is the critical pressure, then
when the back pressure is above this value the nozzle is
overexpanding as shown by line (a), and the mass flow is some value
below the maximum.
When the back pressure is equal to the critical pressure the
expansion follows the line (b), the nozzle is choked, and the mass
flow is a maximum.
When the back pressure is below the critical pressure the expansion
in the nozzle still follows the line (b), but there is an additional
expansion from pe down to the back pressure, pb outside the nozzle.
It can be seen that in the expansion outside the nozzle the pressure
oscillates violently, and in fact a shock wave is formed.
In this case the nozzle is under-expanding.
Convergent Divergent Nozzle
The pressure variations of a fluid flowing through a
convergent -divergent nozzle are shown
When the mass flow through the nozzle is very low,
the pressure at the throat of the nozzle is well above the
critical pressure and therefore the divergent portion acts as a
diffuser, as shown by line (a)
The nozzle is then acting as a venturimeter.
When the back pressure is above the design value at some
value, px then the fluid expands from p1, down to point Q and
is then recompressed along line (b)
Whenever a supersonic stream is decelerated a shock wave
results, and hence the recompression process of line (b) is an
irreversible compression through a shock wave.
Both (a) and (b) are cases of overexpansion.
 When the back pressure is below the design value,
pR, then there is an expansion outside the nozzle as
shown by line (c).
The nozzle is then underexpanding and the
expansion outside the nozzle consists of a series of
irreversible compressions through shock waves,
alternated with irreversible expansions, until the
back pressure is reached.

Lesson Learnt: Relate it with condenser back-pressure

Nozzle efficiency
Due to friction between the fluid and the walls of the nozzle, and
to friction within the fluid itself, the expansion process is
irreversible, although still approximately adiabatic.
In nozzle design it is usual to base all calculations on isentropic
flow and then to make an allowance for friction by using a
coefficient or an efficiency.
Typical expansions between p1, and p2 in a nozzle can be shown
on a T-s diagram T-s Diagram for Vapor
The line 1 -2s represents the ideal isentropic expansion, and the
line 1-2 represents the actual irreversible adiabatic
expansion.
Nozzle efficiency is ratio of actual to isentropic efficiency
1 2
Nozzle efficiency =
1 2

T-s Diagram for Perfect Gas

 If the actual velocity at exit from nozzle is C2 and when flow is
isentropic then velocity is C2s then using steady flow energy
equation:

Similarly actual flow conditions:

T-s Diagram for Vapor

1 2
Nozzle efficiency was which can be now represented as:
1 2
22 12
Nozzle efficiency = 2 2
2 1

When the inlet velocity is negligibly small then we ignore C1

The efficiency then reduces to:
22
Nozzle efficiency = 2 T-s Diagram for Perfect Gas
2
 Two more parameters are used to determine the performance of
nozzle,
Velocity coefficient a ratio between actual flow velocity to the
velocity when the flow is isentropic i.e.
2
Velocity coefficient =
2
Coefficient of Discharge Actual mass flow rate through the
nozzle, to the mass flow rate, if it would have been isentropic

Coefficient of Discharge =

The convergent part of a nozzle is usually sharp, while the divergent
part is gradual. Most of the friction loss occurs in the divergent
portion of the nozzle.
If the semi-divergence angle a is large, there will be flow separation
from the wall with the Formation of eddies, which entails energy loss.
If the angle a is small, the length of nozzle becomes large to provide
the desired exit flow area, causing more energy loss due to friction.
Usually, of varies from 5 to 8. It must be less than 20
7.3 Turbine Blading
Depending upon the types of blades used and the
method of energy transfer from the fluid to the
rotor wheel, the turbines may be of two types:
a) Impulse turbines
b) Reaction turbines
The most basic turbine takes a high-pressure,
high-enthalpy steam, expands it in a fixed nozzle
then uses the rate of change of angular
momentum of the fluid in a rotating passage to
provide the torque on the rotor.
Such a machine is called an impulse turbine
Change of linear momentum tangential to the
wheel gives a tangential force, that causes the
wheel to rotate.
 Assume initially that the fluid is able to enter and leave the wheel
passages in the tangential direction
with an absolute velocity at inlet, Cai and an absolute velocity at exit,
Cae as shown in Figure the blade velocity is denoted by Cb.

As per Conservation of Momentum:

Momentum (angular) absorbed by the wheel in producing shaft work is
equal to Momentum of steam jets at inlet to the blades minus
momentum of jets at exit from the blades (both resolved in the direction
of motion of the wheel)
The rate of increase of fluid momentum in the tangential direction
from left to right gives the tangential force acting on the fluid
With constant mass flow rate m, force on the fluid from left to right
F = m ( Cae Cai)
 An equal and opposite force F, must act on blades i.e.
F = m ( Cae + Cai)
The torque acting on the wheel = T = m R ( Cae + Cai), where R is radius of wheel
2
Rate of work W = T where is angular velocity equal to
60
2
Therefore, W= T
60
2
Or W= m R ( Cai + Cae)
60
Impulse Stages/Impulse Turbine
An impulse stage (Turbine) consists of a stationary nozzle with rotating buckets or blades
(Fig. 8-1).
The steam expands through the nozzle, increasing in velocity as a result of the decrease in
pressure.
The steam then strikes the rotating buckets (blades) and performs work on the rotating
buckets, which in turn decreases the steam velocity.
The impulse stages can be grouped together in
1. pressure compound stages (Fig. 8-2)
2. velocity compound stages and
Pressure compounding (the Rateau turbine):
The pressure drop available to the turbine is used in a series of small increments,
Each increment being associated with one stage of the turbine.
The physical arrangement is shown in Figures 8-2 and 8-3
 Fig. 8-2. Velocity compounded and pressure compounded
Fig. 8-1. Simple impulse turbine stage.
turbine. (From GP Publishing. Used with permission.)
(From GP Publishing. Used with permission.)
Pressure-compounded impulse turbine showing pressure and velocity variations Steam from
boiler Nozzles Moving blade Note that each stage contains, Nozzle and Moving Blades
Enthalpy drop per stage in a 4-stage turbine
 It can be seen that the nozzles are carried in diaphragms which separate each stage
from the next.
The steam pressure in the space between each pair of diaphragms is constant, but
there is a pressure drop across each diaphragm as required by the nozzles.
Precaution must be taken to prevent leakage of the steam from one section to the next
at the shaft and outer casing. (How ???)
In the figure, the variations in pressure and velocity through the turbine
are shown, the final pressure being that of the condenser, and the final velocity
that required for the steam to leave the turbine.
In Figure only one set of wheels is shown, but these may be followed by another set
with a larger mean radius.
 Velocity compounding (the Curtis turbine)
In velocity compounding, the first stage stator blades are Nozzles which increase
the velocity. As a result pressure and enthalpy drops in the single row of nozzles
The resultant kinetic energy of steam is absorbed by the wheel in a number of rows of
moving blades
The stationary blades, between two consecutive rows of moving blades act as guide
blades only.
The pressure remains essentially constant in all the stages of turbine
Overall steam pressure and absolute steam velocity
changes in an ideal velocity compounded impulse
turbine
Reaction Turbine
Reaction staging in a turbine is shown in Fig. 8-3.
The steam expands through the stationary nozzles with an increase in velocity.
The steam then enters the rotating nozzles where it expands further.
The velocity force from the initial expansion and the expansion in the rotating blades is
imparted to the rotating nozzles
The reaction stage has pressure drop across the rotating blades, inducing axial thrust in
the rotor. To offset this thrust, reaction turbines have balancing pistons (refer to Section
[Link]) in high-pressure zones of single-flow turbines. Double flow turbines and Thrust
Bearings are also employed to balance the thrust
Reaction turbines are usually low pressure turbines.

Impulse Versus Reaction Comparison.

Many differences exist between impulse and reaction turbines. Three significant differences
arerelated to the
nature of the expansion process are the number of stages,
the bucket design, and the
stage sealing requirements.
Three stages of reaction turbine with overall steam pressures and
absolute velocities.
 The pressure drop in an impulse turbine occurs across the stationary nozzle, whereas the
reaction turbine has pressure drop across the stationary nozzle and the rotating bucket.
Pressure drop across a rotating bucket causes thrust in the rotor. To minimize the thrust
load to the rotor, the high- and intermediate-pressure sections of reaction turbines have
the rotating blades mounted directly on the rotor, resulting in a small overall diameter and
the need for a large number of stages.
Impulse turbines do not have this thrust concern, and the buckets are mounted on disk
extension of the rotor (wheels), resulting in larger overall diameters, smaller rotor
diameters, and fewer stages than reaction turbines
Turbines have internal sealing systems between the rotating buckets and the stationary
casing and between the stationary nozzles and the rotor. The rotating bucket to
stationary casing seal is more critical in a reaction turbine than in in impulse turbine
since the reaction turbine has pressure drop across the buckets.
The stationary nozzle to rotor seal is more critical in the impulse turbine because
of the higher pressure drop across the impulse stationary nozzle.
Turbine Types
Pressure Reheat Designation
Exhaust Conditions
Flow Designation
Extraction Type
Shaft orientation
Designations
Power plant steam turbines are typically designated by:
shaft orientation,
number of low-pressure turbine steam flow paths, and
the last-stage blade length of the low-pressure
turbine.
A turbine designated as TC4F30, for example, indicates a unit that is tandem-compound
(TC) having two double-flow (4F), low-pressure turbines with 30 in. (76.2 cm) last-stage
blade length of LP
A CC2F23 indicates a unit that is (a) Cross Compound, (b) two double flow and (c) 23 in
last stage blade length of LP
Turbine Types
Pressure Reheat Designation
Exhaust Conditions
Flow Designation
Extraction Type
Shaft orientation
Designations
Power plant steam turbines are typically designated by:
shaft orientation,
number of low-pressure turbine steam flow paths, and
the last-stage blade length of the low-pressure
turbine.
A turbine designated as TC4F30, for example, indicates a unit that is tandem-compound
(TC) having two double-flow (4F) low-pressure turbines with 30 in. (76.2 cm) last-stage
blade length. A CC2F23 indicates a unit that is
Turbine Losses
1. Supersaturation
When steam expands rapidly from a superheated state across the
saturated vapor line (point 1), a condition of metastable
equilibrium exists in which the steam does not immediately
condense upon crossing point 1.
Instead there is no change in the character of the steam, which
continues to follow the laws governing superheated
steam for some distance past point 1 until a certain lower
pressure is reached.

At that point condensation suddenly takes place, and the condition of the system is once again in
thermodynamic equilibrium, which has a quality dictated by the pressure and specific volume (or
entropy) at point 2. The phenomenon occurs in both turbines and nozzles, where rapid expansion
occurs
When expansion crosses the Wilson line, it reverts to thermodynamic equilibrium by sudden
condensation.
This releases the enthalpy of vaporization of the condensed vapor and results in a sudden
pressure rise and reduction in specific volume, as a result pressure will increase. (Back pressure)
2. Fluid Friction
Fluid friction is the biggest cause of all turbine losses. It occurs throughout the
turbine. To begin with,
friction in the steam nozzles.
blade friction, which we tried to minimize by decreasing steam velocities by
compounding, etc.
Also there is turbulence in the blades when the blade shape does not possess the
proper entrance angle for steam at other than design loads.
There is also friction between the steam and the rotor discs that carry the blades.
In addition, the rotor and blade rotation impart a centrifugal action on the steam,
thus causing part of it to flow radially to the casing and be dragged along by the
moving blades. In case of less-than-full steam admission to the moving blades,
such as for an impulse stage, there is churning in the moving blades. This is called
a fanning loss.
Fluid friction losses can amount to about 10 percent of all the energy available to
the turbine
3. Leakage Loss
Steam leakage can occur within and to the outside of a turbine.
Within the turbine steam can leak between the tips of moving blades and the casing
when there is a pressure drop across them, such as in a reaction turbine.
This leakage is greater the greater the pressure drop, i.e., in the higher-pressure stages,
and the greater the ratio of tip clearance to blade height. The leaking steam is throttled
and represents a loss of available energy. In a pressure-compounded (Rateau) impulse
turbine, leakage occurs between the base of the stationary diaphragms that carry the
nozzles and the
shaft.
Leakage can also occur to the outside of the turbine at the various shaft bearings.
This is minimized by the use of proper seals or packings, such as a labyrinth packing.
Leakage loss can account for about 1 percent of the total energy available to a
turbine
4. Moisture Loss
Besides the losses encountered as a result of supersaturation in the two-phase
region (above), the presence of liquid droplets causes further losses.
These droplets have both a size and velocity distribution, not unlike those in a
liquid nozzle spray.
Some low speed droplets splash against the moving blades, i.e., strike them at off-
design angles, and thus reduce the mechanical work of the rotor.
Others are accelerated by the steam and remove some of its energy through
momentum exchange. The result is that turbine sections that operate in the two-
phase region are substantially less efficient than those that operate in the superheat
region.
Turbines are usually designed to operate with exit-moisture content of no more
than about 12 percent (88 percent minimum quality).
Higher moisture content (often coupled with high oxygen content in boiling-water
reactors) cause blade erosion as a result of the impingement of water droplets on
the blades, surface washing, and the so-called wire drawing caused by high-
velocity water leaking through narrow passages
Look at this To avoid leakage loss

Grooved blades, to remove

moisture. It is collected in buckets,
installed at the periphery of stator.
Collects it and used for pre-heating
5. Leaving Loss
Steam leaving the last stage of the turbine has a certain velocity which represents an
amount of kinetic energy that cannot be imparted to the turbine shaft and is thus
wasted.
They result in a 2 to 3 percent loss to the turbine
6. Mechanical Loss
Now that the turbine has extracted work from the system, it must deliver it to the
electric generator.
In so doing, it encounters frictional losses in bearings, governor mechanism, and
reduction gearing, if present.
It must also supply mechanical work to accessories such as oil pumps, etc.
Mechanical losses are practically constant and independent of load and thus increase
in percentage as load decreases. On the other hand, the percentage is also smaller the
larger the turbine.
In general, mechanical losses are fairly small, amounting to 1 percent or less of the
turbine energy.
Turbine Governing
Accurate control of turbine speed is necessary to maintain frequency
The governing system of a turbine is used to regulate the speed and consequently power
output.
The speed and power output depend on the quantity of steam flow rate, passing through
the turbine
Therefore, the used to regulate the speed/ power of the plant, by maintaining the
frequency.
The governor/ steam flow system has to fulfil the following conditions
To control speed of the turbine at synchronous speed, before the generator is electrically connected to
the grid
During on-load operation from zero to full power load the governor has to be speed sensitive. Also, the
system has to allow increase in steam flow, to increase the T/G Load.
During the loss of load, reduction in steam flow, to control the speed of turbine, and return to
synchronous speed
There are two types of governing systems in the turbine, namely
Mechanical Hydraulic control system
Electro-Hydraulic Control System
Mechanical Hydraulic Control System
Many turbines, till today use this system. A typical governing system is shown
In this system, pressurized oil (commonly known as control oil) is used to open the
governor valves, which in turn, allow the required steam flow to the turbine.
The valve close in the absence of hydraulic oil, since valve is closed by spring force. The
hydraulic oil opens the valve against spring force
Governor valves control the steam flow by any of the following methods:
1. Throttle governing
2. Nozzle control governing
3. Bypass governing
4. Combination of 1 and 2 or 1 and 3
Throttle Governing
In throttle governing, steam pressure at which steam admitted to the turbine is reduced at
part loads
The process is popular due to its simplicity, but enthalpy drops in governor valves
 A simplified diagram of throttle governor is shown. This is also known as direct acting
governor
It operates on the principle of centrifugal forces
The rotating shaft is connected to the turbine shaft. The balls, due to centrifugal forces,
move out and lift the sliding collar
As a result, shaft is pulled up, from the left side of the fulcrum and lowers down the other
side, which is on the side of valve
During normal operation the forces are balanced, and therefore, required quantity of
steam, to maintain synchronous speed is delivered to the turbine.
As the turbine speed decreases, speed of the governor is also increased and the fly balls,
of the governor, move outwards.
Due to this, the sliding collar or sleeve moves upwards causing the governor valve to
close.
As a result, steam flow to the turbine decreases
 In large turbines, where steam flow and pressures are high, it is not possible to move the
sleeve due to inadequate forces, hydraulic oil system with relay cylinders are employed to
enhance forces, which operate governor valves
Electrohydraulic Governor System
Basic principle is same as that of Mechanical Hydraulic governor
However, the basic signals and their amplification is through electrical / I&C system
The speed signal, is received in terms of voltage, which is proportional to turbine speed,
generated by small alternator, attached to the turbine shaft.
The speed signal is compared to the set-point signal, and an error signal is produced,
which is then amplified and finally it operates servomotor to produce hydraulic pressure
needed to reposition the control valves
In addition to normal operating controls, there is an auxiliary pressure control that will
close the control valves if the boiler pressure decreases below some predetermined value
(such that 90% of the designed pressure). This also regulates the control valves to limit
pressure increase to less than some predetermined value, say 110% of design pressure
Over riding signal
Control and Instrumentation
The steam turbine generator is controlled and monitored by several interrelated systems:
1. Turbine governor systemautomatically controls turbine speed, acceleration, and
load;
2. Trip systemprovides protection through trips and runbacks;
3. Supervisory instrumentation systemprovides past and present operating data
through parameter sensing, indicating, and recording; and
4. Excitation systemcontrols generator voltage
1. Steam Turbine Governing System
2. Trip System
The trip system initiates protective tripping of the turbine by sensing potentially
damaging operating conditions and automatically tripping the main and
reheat steam valves closed while opening the drain valves.
Typical parameters sensed for initiation of turbine protective functions include the
following. (Items followed by R are recommended to have redundant sensors.)
 Generator tripR (Breaker opens, on differential relays, grounding, zone impedence,
etc.)
Generator protection trips (loss of coolant, high stator temperature, etc.),
Turbine Trips
Manual trip device (in turbine front standard),
High differential expansionR,
Turbine overspeedR,
Thrust bearing failureR,
Low lubricating oil
hydraulic fluid pressureR,
Operator manual tripR,
Condenser low vacuum tripR,
High exhaust hood temperature tripR,
High vibration tripR
 To permit testing and to prevent false tripping while still ensuring a true trip is executed,
the system has redundant sensors (independent channels from signal sensor to the tripping
device) to achieve an appropriate logic philosophy. (Fail safe???)
The trip system also protects the turbine from potential over speed conditions in the event
of a loss of load
3. Supervisory Instrumentation System.
The supervisory instrumentation system includes devices to sense, indicate, and record
parameters necessary to monitor the operation of the machine.
The following parameters are monitored, as a minimum:
Shaft speed;
Governor or control valve position;
Shaft eccentricity;
Radial (X-Y) shaft vibration at all turbine, generator, and exciter bearings;
Shell, rotor, and differential expansion;
Shell and valve chest temperatures;
 Water induction thermocouple temperatures;
Vibration phase angles;
Bearing metal temperature, including the thrust bearing;
Generator winding temperatures;
Generator gas temperatures;
Generator cooling water temperatures; and
Exciter temperatures.
These parameters are measured, recorded, displayed, and
alarmed by hard-wired monitors in the system cabinets.
High differential expansion, turbine overspeed, and thrust bearing
wear alarms are provided to the trip system.
Rotor vibration alarms are displayed in the main control room.