Pavement Design

Transportation Engineering II
Definition & Functions
A pavement is a stable layer constructed to support the wheel loads
from traffic which is constructed over the natural soil.
Functions:

Structural
Cost/Economic Comfort Environmental Drainage
Adequacy
Operation Withstand all Riding quality Dust proof Impervious
cost the stresses (smooth) Minimum
Maintenance Stresses in Sufficient effect to the
cost subgrade friction environment
Hard surface
against
abrasion
Types of Pavement
Flexible Pavement
The pavement is characterized by low flexural strength
Undergoes high deflection and show rebounding nature
Because of the poor load transferring nature, higher stresses in the
subgrade is caused, which may cause the failure of the subgrade
The design of the thickness of the pavement is as per the strength of
the subgrade
 Structure

Foundation

Construction Load
Minimize frosting by drainage action

H/W 1 List out the functions of each component of pavement

 Preparation of Subgrade

Section of flexible road

Preparation of base
Types of Pavement
Rigid Pavement
In compare to the flexible pavement, the rigid pavement shows very
less deflection
Has high flexural strength (beam strength)
As long as minimum subgrade strength is met, the performance of
the rigid pavement is more governed by the strength of the slab itself
Types of Pavement
Semi rigid pavement
It has high flexural strength than the flexible as the property of the
materials are enhanced though the strength is much lower than the
concrete slabs
They use lean-concrete base, soil-cement stabilization
Composite Pavement
Multiple structural layers
 Comparison between Rigid and Flexible Pavement
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
Load
Distribution
Surface Bituminous Surface Concrete Surface
Load carrying Load distribution capacity Load carrying capacity due
capacity of the layered components to the higher flexural
strength of the concrete
slab itself
Design Based mainly on the Based on the flexural
strength of the subgrade strength of Concrete
Mainly done through Precise design can be
empirical methods achieved
 Comparison between Rigid and Flexible
Pavement
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
Life Usually design life of 10 to Design life of 40 years can be
20 years with the achieved even with less
requirement of periodic maintenance
maintenance
Maintenanc Higher rate of Lower rate of maintenance
e maintenance but low cost but higher cost of
of maintenance maintenance
Initial cost Less capital requirement Higher capital requirement*
Stage Possible Not possible
construction
 Comparison between Rigid and Flexible
Pavement
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
Surface Potholes, rutting, Permanent non skid surface
characteristi corrugations, Could get extremely smooth,
cs Easy for achieving roughness costly for maintenance
during maintenance

Imperviousn Less impermeable then Concrete is usually impervious

ess concrete however the joints of the
pavement can be faulty and
cause damage to the pavement
(mud pumping)
Factors affecting pavement
design
Traffic Factors, Design Life, Reliability, Environmental factors, Material Properties,
Traffic factors
Wheel Load = the load transferred to the pavement through tyres
Standard design axle load single axle load
S Country Standard Axle
N Load
1 Nepal 8.2 tonnes
2 India 8.16 tonnes
3 UK 10.17 tonnes
4 USA 8.2-10.2 tonnes
5 AASHTO 9.1 tonnes
Traffic factors
However, for double axle (tandem configuration) 14.5 tonnes and
20.3 tonnes for tridem axles (triple axle) is considered to be standard
Tyre pressure It depends upon the total axle load, wheel
configuration and contact area. This is responsible for causing
damage to the pavement. A standard of 0.5 MN/m2 (70-100 PSI)
Traffic factors Tandem Axles with Dual
Single Axle with
Single Tire
Tires

Single Axle with Dual Tires

Tridem Axles with Dual Tires

Repetition of axle load Pavement distress accumulate

with the repetition of axle load, so the number of
repetition of axle load is one of the important for the
pavement design
Traffic factors
Equivalent Standard Axle Load & Equivalence Factor It is essential to
convert the variety of load into a standard axle load system of 80 kN.
This is done with the help of equivalence factor,
4
= , Also known as fourth power law, here Ls = 80 kN

Calculation of total number of ESAL is made at the base year per day
with the help of the factor
Traffic factors
Pavement has to accommodate the total traffic till its design life. So,
the calculated ESAL of the base year is not sufficient for the design of
pavement. Consideration of growth of the traffic is most important.
For this,
.
365 1 + 1
=

Here, r = annual traffic growth rate,
ESALbase = ESAL at base year per day
n = number of years at the end of design year
Traffic factors
Distribution of commercial traffic in lane In absence of
adequate and conclusive data
Types of Road Traffic amount to be considered
Single lane road Total number of commercial vehicles on both
direction
Two lane single carriageway road 75% of the total number of commercial vehicles in
both direction
Four lane single carriageway road 40% of the total number of commercial vehicles in
both direction
Dual two lane carriageway road 75% of the number of the commercial vehicles in
each direction
Dual three lane carriageway road 60% of the number of the commercial vehicles in
each direction
Dual four lane carriageway road 40% of the number of the commercial vehicles in
each direction
 Problem A two lane two way road is at present carrying a traffic of 1000
commercial vehicles per day. It is to be strengthened for the growing traffic
needs. The vehicle damage factor has been found to be 3.0. The rate of
growth of traffic is 10 percent per annum. The period of construction is 5
years. The pavement is to be designed for 15 years after the completion.
Calculate the cumulative standard axles to be used in design.
- Lane distribution factor 75%
The traffic will grow to 1 +
- 1000 1 + 0.1 5 = 1611
365 1+ 1
For cumulative standard axle load for 15 years - = =

1+0.1 15 1
365 1611
0.1
= 42.03 106 = 42.03
Design life
The design life is time between a new pavement to the time of
reconstruction or rehabilitation
In the design life time, pavement deteriorates to the good initial level
serviceability to its terminal level (minimum acceptable level) of
serviceability
Term serviceability is a measure of pavement performance or the
pavement ability to serve the present traffic
Highway conditions Analysis period

High-volume, urban 30-50 years

High-volume, rural 20-50 years

Low-volume, paved 15-25 years

Low-volume, aggregate surface 10-20 years

Reliability
It is the probability of the pavement that the possible distress will
remain within the permissible level during the design life. As per the
AASHTO guidelines, reliability adopted are as:
Recommended Level of Reliability

Urban Rural
A standard deviation
National Highways 85-99.9% 80-99.9% for traffic of 0.35
State Highways 80-99% 75-95% and 0.45 for rigid
and flexible
Major District Roads 80-95% 75-95%
pavement is taken
Other District Roads and 50-80% 50-80% respectively
Village Roads
Environmental factors
Temperature and Rainfall are the two main environmental factors used
in evaluating pavement performance
Effect of temperature includes:
Stresses induced by thermal action
Effect of freezing and thawing on subgrade soil.
Effect of rainfall is due mainly to penetration of the surface water to
the underlying material.
If penetration occur the properties of the underlying material will
significantly altered.
Freezing and thawing action effects the subgrade strength significantly
Material properties
It is very important to know the structural property of the materials
in the pavement. In most cases, the structural property of the layer
are defined either in terms of CBR (California Bearing Ratio) or in
Resilient Modulus (MR).
In flexible pavement, the strength of the subgrade defines the total
thickness with consideration of no overstressing the subgrade which
can be the possibility of failure,
If CBR <10% or less, MR= 1500 x CBR (in PSI) and 10.3CBR (in
MPa)
the strength parameters of other layers defines spreading of load.
 Material properties
Drainage of Subgrade One of the main function of subbase and base
layer is to provide proper drainage. So, the design should include the
affect of the proper drainage in the design.
AASHTO method includes the drainage coefficient in subbase and base
layer to modify its structural capacity as by defining five category in the
basis of quality of drainage:
Quality of Drainage Water removed within
Excellent 2 hours
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Foor 1 month
Very poor Water will not drain
Material Properties
In case of rigid pavement, parameters as Effective modulus of
subgrade reaction (k), Concrete elastic modulus and concrete
modulus of rupture
Flexible Pavement Design
1. Analytical Design
2. Empirical Design
Analytical Methods
Boussinesqs Theory
- Assumed elastic, homogeneous and isotropic, Hookes law
- The design is based on the assumed deflection in the pavement
where, deflection under circular loading of diameter 2a under the
centre of the applied load is given as
2 1.5
-= 1 2 , = 0.5, = ,

1.18
-= , ,

- First attempt to make analytical solution
Analytical Methods
Burmisters theory (Layered system)
- Two layered system (top layer surfacing, base and sub base and
bottom layer subgrade)
2a

Pavement Layer Modulus of Elasticity E1

Subgrade Layer Modulus of Elasticity E2
1.5
- = , where Fw is a Displacement factor which depends upon
2
E1/E2 and the depth of the pavement, represented by graph
- Thus, deflection depends upon thickness of pavement and E1/E2
Analytical Method
Burmister Method
Analytical Method
Three Layered Analysis
In this system, stresses as vertical stresses, horizontal stresses at two
interfaces are calculated with the help of 4 set parameters dependent
upon the thickness of bituminous layer (h1) and unbound granular
material layer(h2), and Modulus of Elasticity of layers namely
bituminous layer(E1), unbound granular layer (base and subbase) (E2)
and subgrade (E3), radius of circularly loaded area.
Graphs are made available, and the stresses are checked for the
permissible ranges and possible modifications are made
Empirical Method
CBR Method
- It was introduced by California Division of Highways in USA in 1928
- The design curves provides thickness of pavement required for a
given CBR of subgrade and for a given design load to be taken by the
pavement. Three curves for design wheel load 3175 kg, 4082 kg and
5443 kg were developed
- The CBR method is based on the principle of requirement of sufficient
thickness of material for a given CBR.
Empirical Method (CBR method continue)
Empirical Method (CBR method continue)
IRC recommend, 7 curves for different volume of commercial heavy
vehicles whose laden weight is greater than 3 tonnes
To calculate the number of design vehicle for the design year, it is
recommended to use
= 1 + in commercial vehicle per day, CVPD
Q. CBR Subgrade= 5%, CBR subbase= 18%, CBRbase = 80%,minimum thickness of ac = 5 cm, present number
of Heavy Traffic per day = 180, Annual rate of traffic growth = 6%, Design Life = 12 years, Construction
Period = 18 months
Empirical Method (IRC Guidelines)
It provides design catalogue
The flexible pavement has four layer structure
Requires subgrade strength and cumulative number of standard axle
load for design
Empirical Method (IRC Guidelines)
Empirical method (Road note 29)
Based on the cumulative number of standard axle and CBR value of
Subgrade for sub-base thickness,
Based on cumulative standard axle over design period, other
thickness of layer is observed from graph
Design for 20 year life for flexible pavement and 40 year for rigid
pavement
Empirical Method (Road Note 31)
Issued by Transport Research Laboratory (TRL)
A Guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen-Surface Roads
Design are presented in the form of a structural catalogue
Traffic classes considered : Subgrade strength classes :
T1 = < 0.3 (106 ESAL) T5 = 3.0 6.0
S1 = < 2 (CBR %) S4 = 8 14
T2 = 0.3 0.7 T6 = 6.0 10
T3 = 0.7 1.5 T7 = 10 17 S2 = 3 4 S5 = 15 29
T4 = 1.5 3.0 T8 = 17 30 S3 = 5 7 S6 = > 30
AASHTO Method (Empirical Method)
Based on the results of AASHTO road test conducted on Ottawa, Illinois.
Many types of test section were prepared and tested.
The AASHTO Method of road design is in terms of FPS system
This method Incorporates various design inputs including :
Pavement Performance (Loss of serviceability).
Traffic
Subgrade soil properties
Materials of construction
Drainage
Reliability
Design Method

For taking W18 no. of axle load repetition, ZR , So, SN(Structural

capacity of the pavement), MR and PSI are required by the
pavement
Design Method
AASHTO method introduced structural number which depends upon
pavement layer thickness, layer coefficient, & drainage coefficient
Structural number required to withstand the repetition of load by the
subgrade is given as
SN3 = a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2 + a3 D3 m3
Where, SN3 is calculated with the Mr of subgrade
Structural number required to withstand the repetition of load by the
given subbase layer would be given by
SN2 = a1 D1 + a2 D2 m2
Where, SN2 is calculated with the Mr of subbase
Design method (contd)
Structural number required to withstand the repetition of load by the
given base layer would be given by
SN1 = a1 D1
Where, SN is calculated with the Mr of base
The calculation of depth is in inches and the depths are rounded up
to nearest 0.5 inch.
Pavement Performance (in terms of PSI)
Pavement ability to serve traffic at some instances during its life is
expressed in terms of Present Serviceability Index.
PSI = F ( Roughness or slope variance in the two wheel paths, the extent &
type of cracking, patching, and the pavement rutting displayed at the
surface].
Initial & terminal serviceability indices must be established to compute
the change in serviceability ( DPSI) in the design equation.
Initial PSI = F( Pavement type & construction quality) [ 4.2 for flexible &
4.5 for rigid).
Terminal PSI = Lowest index that is tolerable for a pavement before it
require rehabilitation [ 2.5 for major highways & 2.0 for other roads].
Traffic
The traffic is taken as the number of Equivalent standard axle load for
the design period. The standard axle load is taken to be 80 kN or
18000 lbs (18 kips) which can be calculated as:
365 1 + 1

Soil subgrade properties
The soil subgrade strength is to be expressed in terms of Resilient
Modulus (Mr)
If CBR of soil is known and <20% then, Mr in terms of PSI = 1500*CBR
Materials of construction
The quality of material used in construction for different layer of
pavement is expressed in layer coefficient
a3 for quality of material in subbase
3 = 0.227 3 0.839,
a2 for quality of material in subbase
2 = 0.249 2 0.977,
a1 for quality of asphalt concrete surface course
Drainage
Water affect the strength of base and roadbed soil.
The approach is to provide a suitable drainage layer, and by modifying the
structural layer coefficient by incorporating the factor (mi) for the base and
subbase layer coefficients (a2 & a3)

Reliability
It provides a predetermined level of assurance (R) that the pavement section will
survive the period for which they were designed.
Reliability Design Factor: Accounts for chance variations in both traffic prediction
& performance prediction.
(R) is a mean of incorporating some degree of certainty into the design to ensure
that the various design alternatives will last the analysis periods.
Quality of Percentage of time pavement is exposed to moisture levels approaching saturation
Drainage
Less than 1% 1-5% 5-25% Greater than 25%
Excellent 1.40-1.35 1.35-1.30 1.30-1.20 1.20
Good 1.35-1.25 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.00 1.00
Fair 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.05 1.00-0.80 0.80
Poor 1.15-1.05 1.05-0.80 0.80-0.60 0.60
Very Poor 1.05-0.95 0.95-0.75 0.75-0.40 0.40

Modifiers, m2 and m3, for layer coefficients for drainage conditions

Overall standard deviation (So)
Overall standard deviation that accounts for standard deviation (or
variation) in materials & construction, chance variation in traffic
prediction, and normal variation in pavement performance.
So = 0.45 for flexible pavement (0.40 - 0.50)
So = 0.35 for rigid pavements (0.30 -0.40)

ZR = Standard Normal Variate, function of Reliability

Reliability (%) Standard Normal Deviate (ZR)
50 0
60 -0.253
70 -0.524
80 -0.841
90 -1.282
95 -1.645
99 -2.327
99.5 -3.090

Standard Normal Deviate for different values of reliability

Asphalt Institute Method
Design Principle
Method is based on two assumed stress strain
conditions:
Wheel load (W) is transmitted to the pavement surface through the
tire at a uniform vertical pressure (Po). The stresses are then spread
through the pavement structure to produce a reduced max. vertical
stress (P1) at the subgrade surface.
The wheel load (W) causes the pavement structure to deflect
creating both compressive & tensile stresses in the pavement
structure.
Asphalt Institute Method
Asphalt Institute Method
Design Principle
This method considers the following strains as being responsible for
the most common traffic related distresses:
1. Max. Horizontal tensile strains ( ) on the bottom of the asphalt
layer (causes fatigue cracking).
2. Max. Vertical compressive strains ( ) on the top of subgrade
(causes permanent deformation).
& are used as failure criteria
Asphalt Institute Method
Design Method
Asphalt Institute thickness design manual was prepared using a computer
program and suitable data.
The charts have been prepared for a range of traffic load, which are usually
adequate for normal traffic volume encountered in practice, when this range is
exceeded the computer version should be used.
The manual includes charts for different types of pavement structures, and three
sets of environmental conditions based on the mean annual air temp. (45o(<7oC),
60o (15.5oC), and 75o F(>24oC).
Asphalt Institute Method
The six type of pavements are
1. Full depth asphalt concrete.
2. Asphalt concrete surface and emulsified asphalt base.
1. Type I: Emulsified asphalt mixes made with processed dense-graded
aggregates.
2. Type II: Emulsified asphalt mixes made with semi-processed, crusher-run, pit-
run, or bank-run aggregates.
3. Type III: Emulsified asphalt mixes made with sands or silty sands.
3. Asphalt concrete and untreated aggregate base.
1. Base thickness of 4
2. Base thickness of 6
3. Base thickness of 8
4. Base thickness of 10
5. Base thickness of 12.
Design Procedure (Asphalt Institute Method)
1. Select or determine Input data.
2. Select surface and base material.
3. Determine minimum thickness required for input data.
4. Evaluate feasibility of stage construction and prepare stage
construction plan.
5. Carry our economic analysis of alternative design and select the
best design.
Input Data
Traffic characteristics.
Subgrade engineering properties.
Subbase and base engineering properties
Input Data (Traffic Characteristics)
Expressed in terms of 18000 lb , 80 kN Equivalent Single Axle Load
repetition over design life,
Truck factor is introduced where truck factor is the number of ESALs
contributed by a passage of a vehicle
For each weight class, truck factor is determined
The truck factor for different vehicle can be taken as shown from the
table if weight of axle is unknown
Input Data (Traffic Characteristics)
Input Data (Traffic Characteristics)
Example of truck factor
Lane distribution factor
Lane distribution factor is expressed as the percentage of truck to be
taken in the design lane as:
Subgrade Engineering Properties
The main engineering property required for the subgrade is its Resilient Modulud
(Mr).
The design subgrade (Mr) should be based on expected level of traffic expressed
in ESALs.
To ensure more conservative design, lower value of (Mr) is used for higher
volumes of traffic.
Mr = 10.3CBR in Mpa
It is recommended that (Mr) is found for (6 to 8) samples of subgrade.
Arrange Mr values in descending order.
Plot as cumulative distribution.
Chose design subgrade (Mr) from the curve as follows:
Subbase & Base engineering Properties
Certain requirements are needed, which are given in terms of
Step 2 Selection of Base and Surface
Material
Designer is free to select either an asphalt concrete surface or an emulsified
asphalt surface along with an asphalt concrete base, an emulsified asphalt base,
or an untreated aggregate base for the underlying layer.
The choice will depend on the material that is economically available.
Asphalt Institute recommend certain grades of asphalt cement that should be
used for different temperature conditions (mean annual temp.)
Step 3 Selection of thickness for given
repetition of Load
a. Graph for full depth asphalt concrete gives the total thickness of pavement
b. For Asphalt concrete laid over emulsified
asphalt base
a. Graph for combined thickness of emulsified base and asphalt concrete
b. For Asphalt concrete laid over emulsified
asphalt base
The minimum thickness of asphalt concrete
c. For Asphalt concrete laid over unbound
granular base
Graph for thickness of asphalt concrete over untreated granular base
For Asphalt concrete laid over unbound
granular base (contd)
For Asphalt concrete laid over unbound
granular base (contd)
The minimum thickness for the pavement type using untreated
aggregate base is given in table as:
 Step 4 Feasibility of Planning Stage
Construction
Beneficial when:
Funds are insufficient for constructing a pavement with long
design life.
Great amount of uncertainty in estimating traffic.

Concept: Remaining life which implies that the second

stage will be constructed before the first stage shows
serious signs of distress.
Stage 1
n1: Actual ESAL for stage 1
N1: Allowable ESAL for initial thickness (h1) selected for stage 1.
Then The damage ratio (Dr) at the end of stage 1 is:

Dr = n1/ N1

Dr < 1.0 . When Dr =1.0 pavement fails.

(1-Dr) = Remaining life in the existing pavement at the end of stage 1.

h1 is obtained based on Dr =1.0.
To keep some life, h1 should be determined based on adjusted ESAL (N1) > ESAL
(n1)
N1= n1/Dr
Stage 2
n2: Design ESAL for stage 2.
N2: Allowable or adjusted ESAL to permit selection of (h2) that will carry traffic n2 and
use the remaining life in stage 2.

Then The damage incurred in stage 2 should not exceed the remaining life.
n2/ N2 = (1-Dr)

N2 = n2/ (1-Dr)

hs = h2 h1 = Additional thickness required in stage 2 (overlay).

Method recommends (5 10 yrs) stage 1 with 60% Dr.

 Step 5 Design for Alternatives and make
economical analysis
Find several alternative designs for the same design ESAL and
subgrade Mr.
Carry out an economic evaluation of these alternatives.
Determine best alternative.