Microelectronics
Circuit Analysis and Design
Donald A. Neamen
Chapter 1
Semiconductor Materials and Devices
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-1
McGraw-Hill
In this chapter, we will:
Gain a basic understanding of semiconductor material
properties
Two types of charged carriers that exist in a semiconductor
Two mechanisms that generate currents in a semiconductor
Determine the properties of a pn junction
Ideal currentvoltage characteristics of a pn junction diode
Examine dc analysis techniques for diode circuits using
various models to describe the nonlinear diode
characteristics
Develop an equivalent circuit for a diode that is used when
a small, time-varying signal is applied to a diode circuit
Gain an understanding of the properties and characteristics
of a few specialized diodes
Design a simple electronic thermometer using the
temperature characteristics of a diode
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-2
McGraw-Hill
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Ideally 100% pure material
Elemental semiconductors
Silicon (Si)
Most common semiconductor used today
Germanium (Ge)
First semiconductor used in p-n diodes
Compound semiconductors
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-3
McGraw-Hill
Silicon (Si)
Covalent bonding of one Si atom with four other Si atoms to
form tetrahedral unit cell.
Valence electrons available at edge of crystal to bond to
additional Si atoms.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-4
McGraw-Hill
Effect of Temperature
At 0K, no bonds are broken. As temperature increases, a bond can
break, releasing a valence electron and
Si is an insulator. leaving a broken bond (hole).
Current can flow.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-5
McGraw-Hill
Energy Band
Diagram
Ev Maximum energy of a valence electron or hole
Ec Minimum energy of a free electron
Eg Energy required to break the covalent bond
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-6
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Movement of Holes
A valence electron in a
nearby bond can move to
fill the broken bond,
making it appear as if the
hole shifted locations.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-7
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Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
Eg
ni BT e 32 2 kT
B coefficient related to specific semiconductor
T temperature in Kelvin
Eg semiconductor bandgap energy
k Boltzmanns constant
3
ni ( Si,300 K ) 1.5 x10 cm 10
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-8
McGraw-Hill
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Impurity atoms replace some of the atoms in
crystal
Column V atoms in Si are called donor impurities.
Column III in Si atoms are called acceptor
impurities.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-9
McGraw-Hill
Phosphorous Donor Impurity in Si
Phosphorous (P) replaces a Si atom and forms four covalent bonds with
other Si atoms.
The fifth outer shell electron of P is easily freed to become a conduction
band electron, adding to the number of electrons available to conduct
current.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-10
McGraw-Hill
Boron Acceptor Impurity in Si
Boron (B) replaces a Si atom and forms only three covalent bonds with
other Si atoms.
The missing covalent bond is a hole, which can begin to move through
the crystal when a valence electron from another Si atom is taken to form
the fourth B-Si bond.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-11
McGraw-Hill
Electron and Hole Concentrations
n = electron concentration
p = hole concentration
n n p
2
i
n-type:
n = ND, the donor concentration p ni2 / N D
p-type:
p = NA, the acceptor concentration
n ni2 / N A
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-12
McGraw-Hill
Drift Currents
Electrons and hole flow in opposite directions when under the
influence of an electric field at different velocities.
The drift currents associated with the electrons and holes are in
the same direction.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-13
McGraw-Hill
Diffusion Currents
Both electrons and holes flow from high concentration to low.
The diffusion current associated with the electrons flows in the
opposite direction when compared to that of the holes.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-14
McGraw-Hill
p-n Junctions
A simplified 1-D sketch of a p-n
junction (a) has a doping profile
(b).
The 3-D representation (c) shows
the cross sectional area of the
junction.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-15
McGraw-Hill
Built-in Potential
This movement of
carriers creates a
space charge or
depletion region
with an induced
electric field near
x = 0.
A potential
voltage, vbi, is
developed across
the junction.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-16
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Bias
Increase in space-charge width, W, as VR increases to VR+VR.
Creation of more fixed charges (-Q and +Q) leads to junction
capacitance.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-17
McGraw-Hill
Forward Biased
p-n Junction
Applied voltage, vD, induces an electric field, EA, in the opposite
direction as the original space-charge electric field, resulting in a
smaller net electric field and smaller barrier between n and p
regions.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-18
McGraw-Hill
Minority Carrier Concentrations
Gradients in minority carrier concentration generates
diffusion currents in diode when forward biased.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-19
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Ideal
Current-Voltage
(I-V)
Characteristics
The p-n junction only
conducts significant
current in the forward-
bias region.
iD is an exponential
function in this region.
Essentially no current
flows in reverse bias.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-20
McGraw-Hill
Ideal Diode Equation
A fit to the I-V characteristics of a diode yields the
following equation, known as the ideal diode
equation: qvD
I D I s (e nkT
1)
kT/q is also known as the thermal voltage, VT.
VT = 25.9 mV when T = 300K, room temperature.
vD
I D I s (e VT
1)
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-21
McGraw-Hill
Ideal Diode Equation
log e
log(iD ) vD log( I s )
nVT
The y intercept is equal to IS.
The slope is proportional to 1/n.
When n = 1, iD increased by ~ one
order of magnitude for every 60-mV
increase in vD.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-22
McGraw-Hill
Circuit Symbol
Conventional current direction and polarity of voltage
drop is shown
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-23
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Breakdown Voltage
The magnitude of the
breakdown voltage (BV)
is smaller for heavily
doped diodes as
compared to more lightly
doped diodes.
Current through a diode
increases rapidly once
breakdown has occurred.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-24
McGraw-Hill
Transient Response
Short reverse-going current pulse flows when the diode is
switched from forward bias to zero or reverse bias as the excess
minority carriers are removed.
It is composed of a storage time, ts, and a fall time, tf.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-25
McGraw-Hill
dc Model of Ideal Diode
Equivalent Circuits
Assumes vbi = 0.
No current flows when reverse biased (b).
No internal resistance to limit current when forward biased (c).
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-26
McGraw-Hill
Half-Wave Diode
Rectifier
Diode only allows current to flow through the resistor when
vI 0V. Forward-bias equivalent circuit is used to determine
vO under this condition.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-27
McGraw-Hill
Graphical Analysis Technique
Simple diode circuit where ID and VD are not known.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-28
McGraw-Hill
Load Line Analysis
The x intercept of the load line is
the open circuit voltage and the
y intercept is the short circuit
current.
The quiescent point or Q-point is
the intersection of diode I-V
characteristic with the load line.
I-V characteristics of diode must
be known.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-29
McGraw-Hill
Piecewise Linear Model
Two linear
approximations are
used to form piecewise
linear model of diode.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-30
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Diode Piecewise Equivalent Circuit
The diode is replaced by a battery with voltage, V, with a a
resistor, rf, in series when in the on condition (a) and is
replaced by an open when in the off condition, VD < V.
If rf = 0, VD = V when the diode is conducting.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-31
McGraw-Hill
Q-point
The x intercept of the load line is the open circuit voltage and the
y intercept is the short circuit current.
The Q-point is dependent on the power supply voltage and the
resistance of the rest of the circuit as well as on the diode I-V
characteristics.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-32
McGraw-Hill
Load Line:
Reverse Biased Diode
The Q-point is always ID = 0 and VD = the open circuit voltage
when using the piecewise linear equivalent circuit.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-33
McGraw-Hill
PSpice Analysis
Circuit schematic
Diode voltage Diode current
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-34
McGraw-Hill
ac Circuit Analysis
Combination of dc and sinusoidal input voltages
modulate the operation of the diode about the Q-point.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-35
McGraw-Hill
Equivalent Circuits
When ac signal is small, the dc operation can be decoupled from
the ac operation.
First perform dc analysis using the dc equivalent circuit (a).
Then perform the ac analysis using the ac equivalent circuit (b).
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-36
McGraw-Hill
Minority Carrier Concentration
Time-varying excess
charge leads to
diffusion capacitance.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-37
McGraw-Hill
Small Signal Equivalent Model
Simplified model,
which can only be
used when the
diode is forward
biased.
Complete model
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-38
McGraw-Hill
Photogenerated Current
When the energy of the photons is greater than Eg, the photons
energy can be used to break covalent bonds and generate an equal
number of electrons and holes to the number of photons absorbed.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-39
McGraw-Hill
Optical Transmission
System
LED (Light Emitting Diode) and photodiode are p-n junctions.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-40
McGraw-Hill
Schottky Barrier Diode
A metal layer replaces the
p region of the diode.
Circuit symbol showing
conventional current
direction of current and
polarity of voltage drop.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-41
McGraw-Hill
Comparison of I-V Characteristics:
Forward Bias
The built-in voltage of the
Schottky barrier diode,
V(SB), is about as large
as the built-in voltage of the
p-n junction diode, V(pn),.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-42
McGraw-Hill
Zener Diode
I-V Characteristics
Circuit Symbol
Usually operated in reverse bias
region near the breakdown or
Zener voltage, VZ.
Note the convention for current
and polarity of voltage drop.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-43
McGraw-Hill
Example 1.13
Given VZ = 5.6V
rZ = 0
Find a value for R such
that the current through
the diode is limited to
3mA
VPS VZ
I
R
VPS VZ 10V 5.6V
R 1.47 k
I 3mA
PZ I ZV Z 3mA 5.6V 1.68mW
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-44
McGraw-Hill
Test Your Understanding 1.15
Given V (pn) = 0.7V
V (SB) = 0.3V
rf = 0 for both diodes
Calculate ID in each diode.
VPS V
I
R
4V 0.7V
I 0.825mA for the p - n junction diode
4k
4V 0.3V
I 0.925mA for the Schottky diode
4k
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-45
McGraw-Hill
Digital Thermometer
Use the temperature dependence of the
forward-bias characteristics to design a
simple electronic thermometer.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-46
McGraw-Hill
Solution
Given: IS = 10-13 A at T = 300K E g e 1.12V
Assume: Ideal diode equation can be simplified.
VD Eg VD
I D I Se VT
ni2 e kT
e VT
Eg eVD1
I D1 e kT1 e kT1
E g eV
I D2 D2
e kT2 e kT2
E g T2 Eg T2 T2 T2
VD 2 ( ) VD1 ( ) 1.12(1 ) VD1 ( )
e T1 e T1 T1 T1
VD
15V VD
ID I Se VT
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-47
McGraw-Hill
Thermometer cont
VD
15V VD 13
ID 10 A e at T 300K
VT
15 x10
3
Through trial and error : VD 0.5976V and I D 0.960mA
To find temperature dependence, let T1 300K.
T
VD 1.12 0.522( )V
300
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-48
McGraw-Hill
Variation on Problem 1.42
Using the piecewise model
First, determine if the diodes are on or
off. Is the open circuit voltage for each
diode greater or less than VV and
have the correct polarity?
VI = 5V
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-49
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
a) Test what would happen if D3 was not conducting:
If there enough voltage available to turn on D1 and D2?
The power supply is +5V and is attached on the p side of D1.
The n side of D1 is attached to the p side of D2.
So, there is sufficient voltage and with the correct polarity
from the power supply to turn on both diodes.
A check to verify that both diodes are conducting the
open circuit voltage for each diode is equal to 5V, which
means that the load line will intersect the conducting section
of the diodes piecewise model
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-50
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
b) Next question, if current flows through the 1k
resistor with D1 and D2 on, is the voltage drop greater
than or equal to V?
If D3 is open, the voltage drop across the 1k resistor is:
VR 5V 0.65V 0.65V 3.7V
Therefore, there is sufficient voltage to turn D3 on.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-51
McGraw-Hill
Problem 1.44
First, determine if the diode is on or
off. Is the open circuit voltage for
the diode greater or less than V?
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-52
McGraw-Hill
The voltage at the node connected to the p side of the diode is
2kW 5V/(4kW) = 2.5V
The voltage at the node connected to n side of the diode is
2kW 5V/(5kW) = 2V
The open circuit voltage is equal to the voltage at the p side minus
the voltage at the n side of the diode:
Voc = 2.5V 2V = 0.5V.
To turn on the diode, Voc must be V.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-53
McGraw-Hill
Variation on Problems
Create a piecewise model for a device that has the following
I-V characteristics
Piecewise models:
VI < 2V, ID = 0
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-54
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
When VI 2V
V = 2V
10V 2V
rf 800
10mA
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-55
McGraw-Hill
Variation on Problems
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-56
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
For -0.7V < VI < 0.7V, II = 0
The device under test (DUT) acts like an open and
can be modeled as such over this voltage range.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-57
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
When VI 0.7V, II changes linearly with voltage
5V 0.7V
rf 2.35k and V 0.7V
2mA
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-58
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
Since the I-V characteristics of the device under test (DUT)
are symmetrically about VD = 0, a similar model can be
used for VI - 0.7V as for VI 0.7V
For VI - 0.7V:
5V 0.7V
rf 2.35k and V 0.7V
2mA
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-59
McGraw-Hill
Variation on
Problems
Design a circuit
that has a voltage
transfer function
that is shown to
the left.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-60
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
For 0V vI < 8.2V, the voltage transfer function is linear.
When vI = 0V, vO = 0V so there is no need to include a battery
in the piecewise linear model for this voltage range.
Since there is a 1:1 correspondence
between v1 and vO, this section of
the transfer function can be
modeled as a 1 resistor.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-61
McGraw-Hill
Variation cont
When vI 8.2V, the output voltage is pinned at 8.2V, just as if
the device suddenly became a battery.
Hence, the model for this section is a battery, where V = 8.2V.
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-62
McGraw-Hill
Circuit
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-63
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Variation cont
Or, if you assumed a more common V, say of 0.7V, then
the circuit would be:
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 1-64
McGraw-Hill
