GENERAL ZOOLOGY

ZOO

Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)

MISSION
The
University
of
Batangas
provides quality education by
promoting
personal
and
professional growth and enabling
the person to participate in a global,
technology, and research driven
environment
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

VISION
We envision the University of
Batangas to be a center of excellence
committed to serve the broader
community through quality education

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

PHILOSOPHY
The University of Batangas , a stock,
non -sectarian, private educational
institution believes in the pursuit of
knowledge,
values
and
skills
necessary for the preservation and
improvement of the Philippine
society.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

It has faith in the dignity of human

person, in demographic process, in
reward for individual excellence, and in
freedom of a person to worship God
according to his conscience.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Thus, the institution believes that the

development of the individual as a
person and worker is an effective
means in building a better family,
community, and nation, and a better
world.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Objectives
The University of Batangas aims to:
Pursue academic excellence through a
continuing search for and application of
truth, knowledge and wisdom via
traditional and alternative modes of
instructional delivery

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Promote moral and spiritual development

through an integrated education process
that will enhance human character and
dignity

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

conscience through an educational
content relevant to national development
needs, conditions and aspirations;

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Strengthen involvement in community

services through varied economic projects
and extensive research

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Attain institutional self-reliance through

responsive programs for staff, facilitates
and systems development; and

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Ensure financial viability and profitability

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Zoology
-is a science that is concerned with
animal life.
-it deals with the study of animal
structure, internal processes and
modes of life, their evolution and their
interaction with one another and with
their environment.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Science
The word science comes from the
Latin word scientia which means
knowledge.

There are 6 methods that scientists use

in obtaining knowledge.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

This methods includes:

Observing nature
Classifying data
Using logic
Conducting experiments
Forming a hypothesis
Expressing findings mathematically

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

4 Major groups of Scientific Study:

Mathematics and Logic

The Physical Sciences
The Life Sciences
Social Sciences

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 The life sciences, also called the

biological sciences or biology, is
concerned with the study of living
organisims.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

5 Groups of Living Organisms

Plants
Animals
Protists
Fungi
Bacteria

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Subdivisions of Zoology
Zoology may be divided into:
Systemic Zoology
Morphology
Ex-perimental Zoology
Molecular Biology

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Systematic Zoology consists of

4 subdivisions:
A. Taxonomy study of the classification
of animals
B. Ecology study of the relationship of
animals with their environment
C. Zoogeography

study
of
the
distribution of animals on earth
D. Animal Evolution study of how the
existing kinds of animals came into
being
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Morphology stresses the structural aspects

of the animal.
It is subdivided into:
functions of cells Anatomy study of
animal structure as revealed by gross
dissection
Comparative Anatomy study of various
animal types from the lowest to highest
form
Histology study of tissues as revealed
by the microscope
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Cytology study of the minute parts and

functions of cells

Embryology study of the formation

and early development of the organism
Paleontology study of past life as
revealed by fossils

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Experimental Zoology includes

those subdivisions that are
concerned with experimental
alterations of the patterns of
organisms.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

It is subdivided into:
Genetics study of heredity
Experimental Morphology
study of animal structure
Embryology study of growth and
development of the animal from
fertilization up to birth or hatching

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Molecular Biology is the study of

the ultimate or ultramicroscopic
structure and function of living
matter.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

It includes:
A. Biochemistry study of the
chemical make-up of living tissues
B. Genetics study of the chemistry
genes
C. Chemistry of Macromolecules
study of the chemical make-up of
large molecules that make up
living matter
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Zoology
may
also
be
subdivided
according
to
animal subject of study as
follows:
1. Entomology, insects
2. Helminthology, worms with special
reference to parasitic forms
3. Herpetology, reptiles
4. Ornithology, birds
5. Parasitology, parasitic organisms
6. Ichtology, fishes
7. Mammalogy, mammals

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

There are various theories and
hypothesis that explain the origin of
living things. Most of them are based
on scientific explanations except the
religious ones which are based solely
on faith.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Religious Explanations. Creation

stories of most religions explain the
origin of life. These stories tell how the
world and living things were created by
God.
The Theory of Spontaneous
Generation. This theory which
originated in ancient times claimed
that lower forms of life could arise from
non-living matter.
An italian scientist named Francesco
Redi , during mid 1600
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

MODERN THEORIES
THEORY OF PANSPERMIA
States that spores from other part of the
universe landed on the earth and began to
develop
However, many scientists doubted that spores
couldve survived the harsh conditions of
outer space
It explains only the origin of life on earth but
not how life arose in the universe
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 THEORY OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

Was developed independently during the 1920s by a
Russian biochemist named alexander I. Oparin and by
J.B.S. Haldane, a British biologist.
Most accepted theory by biologists
Claims that life developed through a series of
spontaneous chemical reactions in the atmosphere
and oceans early in the earths history.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Proposes that energy such as sunlight, lightning,

and volcanoes powered reactions among the
compounds that produced simple biological
molecules.
These molecules, such as sugars and amino
acids, then combined and formed more complex
molecules. The theory claims that these complex
molecules became organized into the first
organisms.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Miller and Urey, 1953 two (2) American

chemists provided the first experimental
evidence in support of the theory of chemical
evolution
They subjected a mixture of ammonia,
hydrogen, methane and water to the energy of
high voltage sparks for one week amino
acids and other simple biochemical ompounds
had formed
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
1. Chemical uniqueness the macromolecules
that make up living organisms are far more
intricate and complex than their non living
counterparts
4 Major categories of Biological Molecules:
PROTEINS
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
2. Cellular Composition all living things are
made up of cells. Some are unicellular like
the amoeba, while others, like the human
body, are multicellular

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
3. Response to stimuli living organisms
react to both internal and external stimuli
(ex. thirst and hunger). This comes from
within the body
- when external stimuli is encountered, a
person would respond accordingly

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
4. Growth and development
Growth defined as an increase in mass, made
possible by a set of processes that involve the
intake of substances from the external
environment and incoporating these into the
inner structure of the organism.
Development results from different capabilities

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
5. Nutrition organisms feed by taking in
and assimilating materials that are for
growth and maintenance, while others
make their own food.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
6. Reproduction this involves the
replication of genetic materials that are
passed on to the next generation.
- required to ensure the survival of the
species

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
7. Release of energy is necessary to stay
alive.
- this enables organisms to perform
necessary activities that will sustain life.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
8. Excretion the process by which the
organism eliminates toxic waste products

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
9. Adaptation refers to inherited changes
that occur over time and help the species
survive.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
10. Homeostasis all organisms stabilize
the internal conditions of their body
through this process.
- this process is brought about by different
feedback mechanisms

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ASSIGNMENT #1
Trace the history of Zoology including the
important personalities (scientists) that
have contributed in the development of
what is now known as the Modern
Zoology. You may include photos.
Write your answers in your notebook and
prepare for a recitation next meeting.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The
Microscope

Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)

The History
Many people experimented with making microscopes
Was the microscope originally made by accident?
(Most people were creating telescopes)
The first microscope was 6 feet long!!!
The Greeks & Romans used lenses to magnify
objects over 1000 years ago.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The History
Hans and Zacharias Janssen of Holland
in the 1590s created the first
compound microscope
Anthony van Leeuwenhoek and Robert
Hooke made improvements by working
on the lenses

Anthony
van
Leeuwenhoek
ABIGAIL
MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ, Hooke Microscope
R.N., M.A.N 1632-1723
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Robert Hooke
1635-1703

The History

Zacharias Jansen
1588-1631
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The First Microscope

How a Microscope Works

Convex Lenses are
curved glass used to
make microscopes
(and glasses etc.)

Convex Lenses bend

light and focus it in
one spot.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

How a Microscope Works

Ocular Lens
(Magnifies Image)

Body Tube
(Image Focuses)

Objective Lens
(Gathers Light,
Magnifies
And Focuses Image
Inside Body Tube)

Bending Light: The objective (bottom) convex lens

magnifies and focuses (bends) the image inside the
body tube and the ocular convex (top) lens of a
microscope
it (again).
ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALImagnifies
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Parts of a Microscope

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Ocular Lens
Body Tube

Nose Piece
Arm
Objective
Lenses
Stage
Clips
Diaphragm

Stage
Coarse Adj.
Fine Adjustment

Light Source
Base

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

to Magnification Section
R.N.,Skip
M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Body Tube
The body tube holds the objective lenses
and the ocular lens at the proper distance

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Nose Piece
The Nose Piece holds the objective lenses
and can be turned to increase the
magnification

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Objective Lenses
The Objective Lenses increase
magnification (usually from 10x to 40x)

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Stage Clips
These 2 clips hold the slide/specimen in
place on the stage.

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Diaphragm
The Diaphragm controls the amount of
light on the slide/specimen

Turn to let more light in or to

make dimmer.
ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Light Source
Projects light upwards through the
diaphragm, the specimen and the lenses
Some have lights, others have mirrors
where you must move the mirror to reflect
light

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Ocular Lens/Eyepiece
Magnifies the specimen image

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Arm
Used to support the microscope when
carried. Holds the body tube, nose piece
and objective lenses

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Stage
Supports the slide/specimen

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Coarse Adjustment Knob

Moves the stage up and down (quickly) for
focusing your image

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Fine Adjustment Knob

This knob moves the stage SLIGHTLY to
sharpen the image

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Base
Supports the microscope

ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Magnification

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Magnification
To determine your magnificationyou just
multiply the ocular lens by the objective
lens
Ocular 10x Objective 40x:10 x 40 = 400
So the object is 400 times larger
Objective Lens have
their magnification
written on them.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Ocular lenses usually magnifies by 10x

Caring for a Microscope

Clean only with a soft cloth/tissue
Make sure its on a flat surface
Dont bang it
Carry it with 2 HANDSone on the arm and the
other on the base
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Carry a Microscope Correctly

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Using a Microscope
Start on the lowest magnification
Dont use the coarse adjustment knob on
high magnificationyoull break the slide!!!
Place slide on stage and lock clips
Adjust light source (if its a mirrordont
stand in front of it!)
Use fine adjustment to focus
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Cell Division
and Inheritance

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chromosomes and Genes

Genes
A gene is a short section of DNA. Each gene codes for a
specific protein by specifying the order in which amino acids
must be joined together.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chromosomes and Genes

Chromosomes

The cells nucleus contains chromosomes made

from long DNA molecules.
The diagram shows the relationship between the
cell, its nucleus, chromosomes in the nucleus,
and genes.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

MITOSIS
parent cell
chromosomes make
identical copies of
themselves
they line up along the
centre
they move apart
two daughter cells form
with identical
chromosomes to the
parent cell
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

MEIOSIS
The main features
of meiosis are:
the chromosomes
are copied
the cell divides
twice, forming
four gametes

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chromosomes, Genes and

Alleles
Chromosomes come in pairs.
Each pair is called a homolog

A gene is a unit of
heredity
that occupies
a specific
location on a
chromosome and
codes for a
particular product
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Alleles are alternate forms

Alleles alternate forms of a gene

Each letter on the chromosome
represents a gene - a unit of
heredity
that occupies a specific location
on a
chromosome and controls specific
characteristics in the organism

Chromosomes exist in homologous

pairs the genes are the same but
the form the gene may be different.
These are called alleles. Alleles exist
for every characteristic an organism
has
Alleles are
different on
each homolog
- Aa

Eye color
lip thickness

Hair color
Hair texture
Widows peak

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Alleles are the same on

each homolog - JJ

Homozygous versus Heterozygous

Alleles
If alleles for a gene are the
same they we say the
organism is are
homozygous for that
gene

Alleles are the same on

Alleles
areMARIE
the same
on HERNANDEZ,
ABIGAIL
UMALI
each homolog - jj
eachM.A.N
homolog - JJ
R.N.,
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

If alleles for a gene are the

same they we say the
organism is heterozygous
for that gene
Alleles are
different on
each homolog
- Aa

Dominant versus Recessive

Alleles

The allele that is expressed visibly

In the organism is called the dominant
Allele. Represented by a capital letter

The allele that is masked by the

dominant
Allele in the organism is called the
recessive allele. Represented by a
Homologouslower cased letter.
chromosomes

Allele for curly

hair symbol
D (dominant)

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Allele for
straight hair
symbol d
(recessive)

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype is the genetic make up within the cells of an organism
Phenotype describes the observable characteristics of an
organism

Allele for curly

hair symbol
D (dominant)

Genotype

Allele for
straight hair
symbol d
(recessive)

Phenotype

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI

Dd HERNANDEZ, Curly
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

hair

How many different genotypes for hair texture are

are expressed in the homologous chromosomes below?
What will the phenotypes look like?

Genotype

Phenotype

Genotype

Phenotype

Genotype

Phenotype

DD

Curly hair

dd

Straight hair

Dd

Curly hair

Remember D symbol

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N represents gene for
curly hairLIPA
and
is
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS
CITY

Remember d symbol
represents gene for
straight hair and is

Homozygous and Heterozygous

Genotype
Genotype

Phenotype

DD (homozygous)
Dd (heterozygous)
dd (homozygous)

Alleles are the same on

Alleles
areMARIE
the same
on HERNANDEZ,
ABIGAIL
UMALI
each homolog - jj
eachM.A.N
homolog - JJ
R.N.,
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Alleles are
different on
each homolog
- Aa

Genetic and Environmental causes of

Variation

Variation is inherited
Genetic skin colour
Environmental hair length
Both height, weight, intelligence

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Genetic Crosses

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Monohybrid inheritance
It shows the possible outcomes for
inheritance. It illustrates how the parents
alleles might combine in offspring.

Capital letters
represent a
dominant allele
and
lowercased letters
represent the
recessive allele
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemistry of
Life

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemistry of Life
Matter -- anything that has
MASS and takes up SPACE
EVERYTHING is made of
matter
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemistry of Life
Atoms the SMALLEST particle
that can exist and still be
considered matter
All LIVING and NONLIVING things
are made of atoms
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Atoms -- have three

components
ELECTRONS -- negatively charged
PROTONS -- positively charged;
found in nucleus
NEUTRONS -- neutral; found in
nucleus

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Electrons
Nucleus
Protons & Neutrons

Energy Levels

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when
bonds are FORMED or BROKEN.
This causes them to recombine into
different substances.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemical Reactions
Metabolism
All reactions that occur in an organisms.
These reactions break down and build
molecules important to life.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemical Reactions
Mixture:
A combination of a substance in which
the individual components contain their
own property.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemistry of the Cell

Solution:
A mixture in which one or more
substances are distributed evenly in
another substance.

Solvent:
Solute:
A substance that
The substance
can dissolve other that is dissolved
substances

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

pH
Chemical reactions also depend on the pH
of the environment within the organism.
pH A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

pH
The scale goes from 0-14
0 being the most acidic
14 being the most basic

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemistry of Life

Elements -- a substance
that is made of only ONE
kind of ATOM

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Reading Periodic Table

Element
Atomic
Number
Symbol
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Human Body

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Major Elements of Life

C = Carbon
H = Hydrogen
O = Oxygen
P = Phosphorus
K = Potassium
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Major Elements of Life

I = Iodine
N = Nitrogen
S = Sulfur
Ca = Calcium
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Major Elements of Life

Fe = Iron
Mg = Magnesium
Na = Sodium
Cl = Chlorine
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Chemistry of Life
Compounds matter that is
made of more than one kind of
ATOM
Compounds are made by atoms
sharing or taking ELECTRONS
from other atom
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Inorganic Compounds

Water ( H2O )
Each molecule is made of
two HYDROGEN atoms and
one OXYGEN atom
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Water H20

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Why is water so important to

agriculture?
At least 75% of animal body
mass is water
Plants contain 70-80% water
Transports nutrients and
wastes
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Why is water so important to

agriculture?
Dissolves compounds -Universal Solvent
Regulates body temperature in
animals
Provides structure for plants
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds contain carbon.
Carbon forms the structural backbone
of all living things.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Carbohydrates
Organic Compounds that contain:
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

They provide energy

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Carbohydrates
Three Types
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
simple SUGAR
contain C6H12O6
GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND
GALACTOSE

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Carbohydrates
Disaccharides
double SUGAR
contain two RINGS
SUCROSE and LACTOSE

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
complex CARBOHYDRATES
made of RINGS of SUGAR
STARCH, CELLULOSE, and
GLYCOGEN

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Proteins
Basic building material for all living
things.
Used for STRUCTURE and FUNCTION
Made of H, O, C, N

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Structure of Proteins
Amino Acids building BLOCKS
20 different kinds all have the same elements but
in different amounts

Polypeptides chains of AMINO ACIDS Joined

by peptide bonds
Proteins chains of POLYPEPTIDES
Used to make SKIN, HAIR, MUSCLE,
ORGANS, etc.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Lipids
FATTY molecules
used to store ENERGY
Made of long chains of H & C
followed by
COOH
Do not DISSOLVE in WATER
Lipids have less OXYGEN than carbohydrates
Examples of Lipids are: FATS, OILS, AND
WAXES
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Nucleic Acids
Store INFORMATION that controls CELL
activities
Made of a PHOSPHATE a SUGAR, and a
BASE.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Examples of Nucleic Acids are:

DNA :
Deoxyribonucleic Acid

The master copy of an organisms

information code.
Instructions to form all of an organisms
structural proteins

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Examples of Nucleic Acids are:

RNA :
Ribonucleic Acid

This forms a copy of the DNA for use in

making protein.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Atoms are the building

block of life!

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

THE CELL AND ITS STRUCTURE

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Introduction
Cells are the basic units of organisms
Cells can only be observed under microscope
Two basic types of cells:

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Plant Cell
Cell wall

Made of cellulose which

forms very thin fibres
Strong and rigid
In plant cells only
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Cell wall

Protect and support

the enclosed
substances
(protoplasm)
Resist entry of excess
water into the cell
MARIE
GiveUMALI
shape
to the cell
ABIGAIL
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Cell wall

A dead layer
Large empty spaces
present between
cellulose fibres

freely permeable
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Cell membrane
Lies immediately
against the cell wall
Made of protein and
lipid Selectively
permeable
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Cell membrane
A living layer
Can control the
movement of
materials into and
out of the cell
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Cytoplasm
Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
membrane
Provide a medium for
chemical reactions to
take place
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Cytoplasm
Contains organelles
and granules :
e.g. chloroplast
e.g. mitochondrion
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Organelles

very small size can only be

observed under electron
microscope

has specific functions

in cytoplasm

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Chloroplast
Contain the green
pigment chlorophyll
To trap light energy,
to make food by
photosynthesis
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Chloroplast
Contain starch grains
(products of
photosynthesis)

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )

Rod shape
For respiration

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )

Active cells ( eg.

sperms, liver cells)
have more
mitochondria
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Non-living granules

Starch granules
Oil droplets
Crystals of insoluble
wastes
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Vacuole
large central vacuole
Surrounded by tonoplast
Contains cell sap
a solution of chemicals
(sugars, proteins,
mineral salts, wastes,
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
pigments)
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Nucleus
Control the normal
activities of the cell
Bounded by a
nuclear membrane
Contains thread-like chromosomes

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Plant Cell
Nucleus
Each cell has fixed
number of chromosomes
Chromosomes carry
genes
genes control cell characteristics

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Different kinds of plant cells

Onion Epidermal Cells

root hair

Root Hair Cell

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Guard Cells

vacuole

cytoplasm

Animal cell
nucleus

mitochondrion

cell
glycogen
ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
membrane
R.N.,
M.A.N
granule
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

No cell wall and

chloroplast
Stores glycogen
granules and oil
droplets in the
cytoplasm

Different kinds of animal cells

white blood cell
Amoeba
red blood cell

muscle cell
sperm

cheek
cells
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

nerve cell

Paramecium

Similarities between plant cells

and animal cells
Both have a cell membrane surrounding the
cytoplasm

Both have a nucleus

Both contain mitochondria
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Differences between plant cells

and animal cells
Animal cells

Plant cells

Relatively smaller in
size

Relatively larger in
size

Irregular shape

Regular shape

No cell wall

Cell wall present

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Differences between plant cells

and animal cells
Animal cells

Plant cells

Vacuole small or absent

Large central vacuole

Glycogen granules as
food store

Starch granules as
food store

Nucleus at the centre

Nucleus near cell wall

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Microscope
Instrument for
observing small
objects

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Different parts of a
microscope
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Revolving
nosepiece

Clip

Eyepiece
Body tube
Course
adjustment
Fine adjustment

Condenser

Arm

Iris diaphragm

Stage
Condenser
control knob

Objective

Mirror
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Base

The cell as the basic unit of life

Cell is the smallest unit of living organisms
Unicellular organisms are made of one cell
only
The cells of multicellular organisms are
specialized to perform different functions
e.g. mesophyll cells for photosynthesis
and root hair cells for water absorption
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Levels of organization
Cells are grouped together and work
as a whole to perform special
functions
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Tissue
A group of similar cells to perform a
particular function
Animals : epithelial tissue, muscular
tissue
Plants : vascular tissue, mesophyll
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Organ
Different tissues group together to
carry out specialized functions
Heart : consists of muscles,
nervous tissue and blood vessels
Leaf : consists of epidermis,
mesophyll and vascular tissue
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Structures of a Leaf

Chloroplast
Palisade Mesophyll
Cell
Spongy Mesophyll
Cell
Air Space
Stoma
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Structures of a Heart

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

System
Several organs and tissues work together
carry out a particular set of functions in a coordinated way
Human : digestive, respiratory, excretory,
circulatory and reproductive systems
Plant : root and shoot systems

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

to

System in our body

examples of systems :
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Circulatory System
Nervous System
Reproductive System
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Respiratory System

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Circulatory System

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Nervous System

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Male Reproductive System

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Female Reproductive System

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Level of Organization
cells

(e.g. muscle cells, nerve

cells)
tissues (e.g. muscle, epithelium)
organs (e.g. heart, lungs, stomach)
systems (e.g. circulatory system)
organisms (e.g. man)
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Phases of Embryonic
Development

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

7 steps:
1. gametogenesis

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

fertilization
cleavage
blastulation
gastrulation
neurulation
organogenesis

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

[Link]
is a process by which the diploid germ cells
undergo a number of chromosomal and
morphological changes to form mature haploid
gametes.
Animals produce gametes directly through meiosis
in organs called gonads. Males and females of a
species that reproduces sexually have different
forms of gametogenesis:
spermatogenesis (male) in testes produce sperms.
oogenesis (female) in Ovary produce ova.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Structure of sperm

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Structure of ovum

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Common terms
Animal Pole: the pole (end) of the egg where
yolk is least concentrated.
Animal hemisphere: the hemisphere of the egg
where animal pole is located.
Vegetal pole: the pole (end) of the egg where
yolk is the most concentrated.
Vegetal hemisphere: the hemisphere of the egg
where vegetal pole is located.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

[Link]:
is the process whereby two sex cells (gametes) fuse together
to create a new individual with genetic potentials derived
from both parents.

Have two separate activity:

1. Combining of genes derived from the two parents.
2. Creation of new organisms.
Thus
The first function is: Transmit genes from parents to
offspring.
The second is : initiate reactions in the egg cytoplasm that
proceed development. Also,
Restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes reduced
during meiosis.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

It have 4 major steps:

1. Sperm contacts the egg
2. Sperm or its nucleus enters the egg, and
regulation of sperm entry .
3. Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
4. Egg becomes activated and developmental
changes begin

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

3. Cleavage
Is the process of repeated rapid mitotic cell divisions of the
zygote (unicellular structure) to form the Blastula
(multicellular structure).
The produced cells named Blastomeres.
During this stage the size of the embryo does not change,
the blastomeres become smaller with each division.
The type & pattern of cleavage differ from species to
species.
continues divisions to form a ball of 32 cells called the
morula.
The morula continues divisions to form the hollow blastula
with up to several hundred cells.
The cavity of the blastula is the blastocoel.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Figure 47.8x Cleavage in a frog embryo

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

4. Blastulation

The result (end period) of cleavage.

The production of a multicellular blastula
Blastula cells are called blastomeres.
A cavity forms within the ball of the cells called
the blastocoel.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Blastula of frog

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Human blastula

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Starfish development, unfertilized egg.

16 blastomeres.

2 blastomeres.

32 blastomeres.

morula
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

4 blastomeres.

Starfish development,
nonmotile

blastula.

5. Gastrulation
The morphogenetic process called gastrulation
rearranges the cells of a blastula into a threelayered (triploblastic) embryo, called a
gastrula, that has a primitive gut.
It means rearrangement of blastula cells that
transforms the blastula into a gastrula.
The blastula develops a hole in one end and
cells start to migrate into the hole; this forms
the gastrula
Characterized by cell movement.
Blastocoel is gradually disappear and a new
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
formed
HERNANDEZ,
cavity
is
Gastrocoel.
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 The gastrula is a three-layered embryo

The formation of three primary embryonic germ
layers
Endoderm (inner)
Mesoderm (middle)
Ectoderm (outer)
The pattern of gastrulation is affected by the amount
of yolk.
The cells at the vegetal pole invaginate, initiating
gastrulation.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Gastrulation in a Frog Embryo

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Figure 47.10 Gastrulation in a frog embryo

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

6. Neurulation
Chordates Only
formation of a dorsal, hollow neural tube
by
ectodermal cells flatten into neural plate
the center of the plate sinks forming neural groove
edge of plate is elevated to form neural folds
neural folds fuse and form neural tube
anterior end develops into brain
posterior end develops into spinal cord
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)

Neurulation

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

The Neural Crest

The neural crest is a
critical structure that
guides formation of several
organ systems
The neural crest forms on
either side of the point of
fusion
Its cells migrate to form the
dorsal root ganglia, the
postganglionic sympathetic
neurons, many sense organs
and all pigment-forming
ABIGAIL MARIE
cellsUMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Organogenesis
Organogenesis is the formation of the organs
The layers are germ layers; they have specific fates
in the developing embryo:

Endoderm
The innermost layer
Goes on to form the gut

Mesoderm
The middle layer.

Goes on to form the muscles, circulatory system, blood

and many different organs
Ectoderm
The outermost
Goes
on to
form the skin and nervous system
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Organogenesis Begins With

Development of the Nervous System
The nervous system is the first
organ system to develop.
The notochord grows and
induces overlying ectoderm to
form the neural plate.
Cells of the neural plate fold to
form the neural groove and
the surrounding neural folds
fuse to form the neural tube.
The anterior portion forms the
brain; the rest forms the spinal
ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
cord.
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

7. Organogenesis

Development of organs from three primary germ

layers

Ectoderm forms:
skin and associated glands, nervous
system.
Mesoderm forms:
muscles, skeleton, gonads, excretory
system, circulatory system.
Endoderm forms:
lining of digestive tract, liver,
pancreas, lungs.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Figure 47.11 Organogenesis in a frog

embryo

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Somatic &Germ Cells

Somatic Cells:

1.

Found in all body tissues except gonads.

Contain diploid numbers of chromosomes (2N).
Replacement of dead cells
Reproduce by mitotic division.
Functions:
Responsible for formation of different system and
organs.
2. Have other specific functions
e.x.: muscular system have myoplast for contraction and
relaxation .
nervous system have neurons for transmission of
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
impulses.
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

digestive system have secretory cells for secretion of

enzymes for digestion.
bone have osteoplasts make hardening of bone.
Lung have cells for respiration.

Germ Cells:

Found only in gonads (testes & ovary)

Contain haploid number of chromosomes (1N)
Reproduce by meiotic division (meiosis).
Function : Formation of gametes (male & female)

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Primordial germ cells

Appears in the wall of the endodermal layer of the
yolk sac due to their large size and high content of
alkaline phosphatase , and migrate by amoeboid
movement toward the hind gut epithelium and
then through dorsal mesentery reach to the
primordia of the gonads ( primitive sex glands).
Become recognizable at 24 days post-fertilization.
Invading the genital ridges in the 6th week of
development.
The primordia of the gonads give a chemostatic
the germ cells.
ABIGAILattractant
MARIE UMALI for
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

 Also may be the germ cells directed toward the

gonads by the mature of cellular and non-cellular
microenvironment that surround them.
Or by tissue rearrangement that occur in the early
embryos.
If they fail to reach the ridges, the gonads will not
develop.
So, it have the inductive influence on the
development of gonads into ovary and testes.
Determine sex of the embryo.
They will form different stages of spermatogenesis
and oogenesis in the future.
Found in adult in gonads (testes and ovary)
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Basic Developmental Vocabulary

Fertilization activates egg & brings together the

nuclei of the egg and sperm.

Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller
cells.
Gastrulation rearranges the blastula to form a
three-layered embryo with a primitive gut, the
archenteron.
Organogenesis is the process by which the organs
in the animal body form from the three embryonic
germ layers.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Basic Developmental Vocabulary

Blastula a hollow sphere of cells (128 cells) formed by

cleavage of the morula. The blastula contains the blastocoel

that is fluid-filled. The blastopore is the place where
gastrulation begins.

Gastrulation the process leading to the creation of the

primitive gut or archenteron. Invagination at the blastopore

results in the gut.

Gastrula transformation of the blastula into an embryo

possessing 3 germ layers, ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.

Morula a solid mass of 16-64 cells formed by cleavage.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Body Parts

and Functions

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Anatomy of a Frogs Head

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the body parts that

make up the frogs head
External nares or nostrils - Anterior openings
for the entry or exit of air.
Esophagus - Tube that connects the mouth and
the stomach in a frog.
Tympanic Membrane - The eardrum - receives
sound waves
Glottis - The opening from the mouth into the
respiratory system
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the body parts that

make up the frogs head
Tongue - Muscular structure attached to the
front of the mouth which is extended to catch
insects (its food).
Maxillary Teeth - Sharp teeth in the maxilla
of a frogs mouth that function in holding
captured prey.
Vomerine Teeth - Small projections in the top
of a frogs mouth that function in holding and
captured prey.
Eustachian tube openings - Openings in
the mouth that lead to tubes that connect to
ABIGAILthe
MARIEmiddle
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
ear to equalize air pressure
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

External Anatomy of the Frog

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the External Anatomy

of the Frog
Nictitating Membrane - A transparent
part of a frogs lower eyelid that moves
over the eye to clean it and protect it.
Cloacal Opening - Opening of cloaca
through which undigested food, urine,
eggs, and sperm are passed.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Internal Anatomy of a Frog

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the Internal Anatomy

of a Frog:
Stomach - Stores food and mixes it with
enzymes to begin digestion.
Small Intestine - The principal organ of
digestion and absorption of digested food.
Duodenum - The anterior (front) part of the
small intestine into which food passes from
the stomach
Pancreas - Gland which secretes digestive
enzymes into the duodenum.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Gall Bladder - Sac which stores bile.
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the Internal Anatomy

of a Frog:
Large Intestine - Posterior organ of the digestive
system which stores undigested food.
Liver - Secretes bile and processes digested food
molecules
Urinary Bladder - The organ that collects and
stores urine until released.
Fat Bodies - Masses of fat in the body cavities of
frogs. Needed for hibernating and mating
Spleen - Organ in the frogs circulatory system that
makes, stores, and destroys blood cells.
Cloaca - Organ through which the products of the
frogs digestive and urogenital system pass when
ABIGAILdischarged
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
from the body.
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Anatomy of a Frog Heart

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the Frog Heart

Heart - Pumping organ of the circulatory system
(has 3 chambers).
Anterior Vena Cava - Large vein that carries blood
from the anterior part of the body toward the heart.
Posterior Vena Cava - Large vein that carries
blood from the posterior part of the body towards
the heart.
Sinus Venosus - Sac that receives blood from the
vena cava

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the Frog Heart

Right Atrium - Chamber of the frogs heart
which receives blood from the sinus venosus.
Left Atrium - The chamber of the heart that
receives blood from the lungs.
Pulmonary Veins - The blood vessels that
carry blood form the lungs to the left atrium.
Ventricle - Chamber of a frogs heart that
pumps blood out of the heart to the lungs and
other parts of the body.
Truncus Arteriosis - Large artery in a frog
that carries blood away from the ventricle into
branches
that
lead
to
all
parts
of
the
body.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Brain

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the Frog Brain

Spinal Cord - Main pathway to and from the brain
Spinal Nerves - Nerves that lead to and from the
spinal cord
Olfactory Lobe - Part of the frogs brain
associated with the sense of smell
Cerebrum - Part of the brain that is associated
with memory, pain, and voluntary muscle control.
Optic Lobes - Part of the brain associated with
vision.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Functions of the Frog Brain

Cerebellum - Part of a brain that influences
balance and equilibrium.
Medulla Oblongata - Part of a brain that is
the center for some involuntary functions.
Cranial Nerves - Nerves that lead to and
from the brain.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Reproductive System

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Reproductive System

Functions

Urinary Ducts - Tubes in a frog that carry

urine from the kidneys to the cloaca
Urinary Bladder - The organ that collects
and stores urine until released.
Adrenal Glands - Organs located near the
kidneys which secrete hormones.
Ova or Eggs - Female sex cell or gametes

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Reproductive System

Functions
Ovaries - Organs of the female reproductive
system that produce the eggs.
Oviducts - Tubes of a female frogs
reproductive system that carry eggs from the
ovaries to the cloaca.
Testes - Male sex organs that produce sex
cells (sperm).
Sperm - Male sex cell or gametes.
Seminal Vesicles - Enlarged distal sections
of the male frogs urinary ducts that collect
sperm prior to entry into the cloaca.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Dissection

Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)

Index to Frog Dissection

Index to Frog muscles dissection
Frog mouth
Frog internals
Internals 1
Internals 2
Male
female

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog muscles
Dorsal view
Full view
Shoulder and head area
Shoulder lateral
Shoulder dorsal

Anterior dorsal view

Upper body

Back legs
Lateral muscles

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Ventral view
Full view
Upper body
Back legs- medial view
Superficial muscles
Dissection 1
Dissection 2 (deep muscles)

Key to all muscles

SKELETAL SYSTEM

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Frog Dorsal view

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Muscle index

Muscle index

Frog shoulder lateral view

Muscles contrasted
Tympanic
membrane

10

Mouse click once for key

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

4.
5.
6.
10.

Masseter
Depressor mandibularis
Dorsalis scapulae
Latissimus dorsi

Muscle index

Frog shoulder dorsal view

Muscles contrasted
6
5

10

2.
4.
5.
Mouse click once for key
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ, 6.
7.
R.N., M.A.N
10.

UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Pterygoideus
Masseter
Depressor mandibularis
Dorsalis scapulae
Deltoid
Latissimus dorsi

Muscle index

Anterior Dorsal view

Muscles contrasted

Mouse click once for key

2
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10.
11.
14.

Pterygoideus
Temporal
Masseter
Depressor mandibularis
Dorsalis scapulae
Latissimus dorsi
Longissimus dorsi
External oblique

Muscle index

Legs lateral muscles

Muscles contrasted

Mouse click once for key

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

17.
18.
20.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

Gluteus
Piriformis
Triceps femoris
Gracilis minor
Gastrocnemius
Tendon of Achilles
Semimembranous
Biceps femoris

Muscle index

Ventral
muscles

Contrasted muscles

Mouse click once for key

7.
Deltoid
9.
Pectoralis
13.
Linea alba
20.
Triceps femoris
21.
Adductor magnus
22.
Sartorius
24.
Gracilis major
25.
Gracilis minor
26.
Gastrocnemius
27.
Tendon of Achilles
30.
Mylohoid

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Muscle index

Frog ventral anterior muscles

Muscles contrasted

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

7.

12.
13.
14.

Mouse click once for key

Deltoid
Pectoralis
Rectus abdominis
Linea alba
External oblique

Muscle index

Frog medial leg

Muscles contrasted

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Mouse click once for key

20.
Triceps femoris
21.
Adductor magnus
22.
Sartorius
24.
Gracilis major
26.
Gastrocnemius

Muscle index

Legs medial muscles

Mouse click once for key

19. Adductor longus
20. Triceps femoris
21. Adductor magnus
22. Sartorius
23. Not shown here
24. Gracilis major
25. Gracilis minor
26. Gastrocnemius
27. Tendon Achilles

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Muscle index

Medial leg muscles (deep)

Mouse click once for key

Sartorius (cut)
Adductor longus (cut)
Triceps femoris

Gracilis major
Gracilis minor

Semitendinosus (double
belly)

12.
Rectus abdominis
23.

External oblique
24.
19.
Adductor longus
26.
20.
Triceps femoris
28.
21.
Adductor magnus
Sartorius
ABIGAIL [Link]
HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Semitendinosus
Gracilis major
Gastrocnemius
Semimebranosus

Adductor magnus

Muscle index

Key to Frog muscles

1. Mylohyoid
2. Pterygoideus
3. Temporal
4. Masseter
5. Depressor mandibularis
6. Dorsalis scapulae
7. Deltoid
8. Triceps brachii
9. Pectoralis
10. Latissimus dorsi
11. Longissimus dorsi
12. Rectus abdominis
13. Linea alba
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
15.
Cutaneous
abdominis
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

16.---17. Gluteus
18. Piriformis
19. Adductor longus
20. Triceps femoris
21. Adductor magnus
22. Sartorius
23. Semitendinosus
24. Gracilis major
25. Gracilis minor
26. Gastrocnemius
27. Tendon Achilles
28. Semimembranous
29. Biceps femoris

Frog mouth
30.
31.
33.
34.
35.
36.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Maxillary
Mouseteeth
click one time for answers
Vomerine teeth
Eustachian tubes
Tongue
Glottis
Esophagus

Frog internals 1
One mouse click for answers
38.
39.
40.
41.
43.
51.
52.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Ventricle
Auricle (atrium)
Conus arteriosus
Aortic arches
Liver
Fat bodies
Urinary bladder

Frog internals 2
Mouse click once for answers
40
38

42

43

39
44
56
55
50

46

52
49
47

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

51

38.
39.
40.
42.
43.
44.
46.
47.
49.
50.
51.
52.
55.
56.

Auricle (atrium)
Ventricle
Conus arteriosus
Lung
Liver
Gall bladder
Small intestine
Large intestine
Spleen
Kidney
Fat bodies
Urinary bladder
Adrenal gland
testis

Frog internals- male

45
45
48
48

49
49

46
46

56
56
55
55

47
47

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

50
50
57
57

45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
55.
56.
57.

Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Pancreas
Spleen
Kidney
Adrenal
Testis
Vestigial oviducts

Frog internals- female

Mouse click one time for answers
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
51.
52.
58.
59.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY

Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Pancreas
Spleen
Fat bodies
Urinary bladder
Ovary
Oviduct

Last slide