Elements of Statistics and
Biometry
Course Contents (Mid
terms)
Definition and scope of statistics in research
Measurement scales, Type of variables,
continuous and discrete data
Grouping of data
Presentation of data, one dimensional
diagrams and graphic presentation of
frequency distribution, stem-leaf and box
plots
Measures of central tendency and their
graphic location
Measures of dispersion, Tchebychev law
Statistics
Statistics is the study of methods and procedures for
collecting, classifying, summarizing, and analyzing data
and for making scientific inferences from such data under
uncertain conditions
Descriptive Statistics is the branch of statistics which
deals with methods concerned with summarization and
description of data. It includes reduction of data,
graphical displays and computation of few numerical
quantities which provides the information about the
centre and indicate the spread
Inferential Statistics deals with procedures for making
inferences about the characteristics of the whole i.e.,
population on the basis of information derived from a
part i.e., sample
Population
A population is the totality of the observations made
on all the objects (under investigation) possessing
some common specific characteristics, which are of
particular interest to researchers. The entire lot of
anything under study is called population. For
example, all the fruit trees in a garden, all the
patients in a hospital and all the cattle in a cattle
form are examples of population in different studies.
Finite or Infinite Population
A population may be finite or infinite. The number of
observations in a finite population is called the size
of the population and is denoted by the letter N.
Sometimes it is not possible to count the units
contained in the population. The number of germs in
the body of a patient of malaria is perhaps something
Sample
A sample is a representative part of the population
which is selected to obtain information concerning the
characteristics of the population. The number of
observations in a sample is called the size of the
sample which is denoted by n.
Sampling
The process of drawing a sample from population is
called sampling.
Reduced cost
Greater speed
Greater accuracy
Some times it is the only option (testing the life of
bulbs/bulets)
Parameter & Statistic
Parameter
A parameter is a numerical characteristic of a
population, such as its mean or standard deviation,
etc. Parameters are fixed constants that
characterize a population. They are denoted by
Greek letters. Parameter is a fixed quantity.
Statistic
A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a
sample such as its mean or standard deviation, etc.
The statistics are used to draw valid inferences
about the population. They are denoted by Latin
letters. Statistic is a variable quantity.
Observations & Variables
Observation
Observation often means any sort of
numerically recording of information. It may
be physical measurement such as height or
weight or a classification such as head or tail
Variables
A characteristic that varies with an individual/
object, time and/or place, is called a variable.
For example Age, leaves per plan, number of
plants per plot, height /weight of any
individual. Variables are usually represented
by X, Y etc.
Types of Variables
Qualitative Variable
Characteristic which varies in quality (not
numerically) from one individual to another,
also called attribute, e.g. eye colour,
education level, Behaviour, quality, Design,
Performance. No. of children in a house,
Quantitative Variable
Variable is called a quantitative variable
when it varies in quantity (or numerically)
from one individual to another, e.g. age,
income, temperature, Price , height, weight
Types of Quantitative variable
Discrete variable
Variable take only specified values or take
values by jumps or breaks, e.g. number of
rooms in a house, number of deaths in an
accident etc.
Continuous variable
If it can assume any value (fractional or
integral) within two specified values a and
b, e.g. height of a plant, speed of a car,
Sale, Price
Measurement
The process of assigning numbers or labels to objects,
persons, states or, events in accordance with specific
logically accepted rules for representing quantities or
qualities of attributes or characteristics. Data can be
classified according to levels of measurement. The level of
measurement of the data often dictates the calculations
that can be done to summarize and present the data. It will
also determine the statistical tests that should be
performed. There are actually four levels of measurement:
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio [Stevens 1951].
The lowest, or the most primitive, measurement is the
nominal level. The highest, or the level that gives the most
information about the observation, is the ratio level of
measurement.
Nominal scale
These scales are comprised of numbers used
to categorize objects or events. Nominal
numbers serve as a label for a category. For
example Rainfall may be classified as heavy,
moderate and light, Eye colour, religion and
Gender.
Ordinal or ranking scale
It includes the characteristics of a nominal
scale and in addition has the property of
ordering or ranking. Ordinal data indicate
the relative positions of two or more items on
some characteristic but not the magnitude of
difference between the items. These numbers
can be arranged but arithmetical operations
are meaningless. The performance of the
students (excellent/ good/ fair/ or poor) or
(high/medium/low income).
The Branch of statistics that deals the
data related to the above two scales is
called non parametric statistics.
Interval Scale
A measurement scale possessing a
constant/equal interval size (distance) but not
a true zero point For example temperature of
20 C, Shoe Size, IQ scores etc.
Ratio Scale
Ratio scales tell us about the order, they tell
us the exact value between units, AND they
also have an absolute zerowhich allows for a
wide range of both descriptive and inferential
statistics to be applied. Everything above
about interval data applies to ratio scales +
ratio scales have a clear definition of zero.
Presentation of data
Data
Qualitative
Qualitative Data
Data
Quantitative Data
Presentation of data
Data
Qualitative
Qualitative Data
Data
Tabular
Methods
Graphical
Methods
Quantitative Data
Tabular
Methods
Graphical
Methods
16
Presentation of data
Data
Qualitative
Qualitative Data
Data
Tabular
Methods
Frequency Dist
Rel. Freq. Dist.
% Freq. Dist.
Crosstabulation
Graphical
Methods
Quantitative Data
Tabular
Methods
Graphical
Methods
Bar Graph
1. Simple
2. Multiple
3. Component
4. Pie Chart
17
Presentation of data
Data
Qualitative
Qualitative Data
Data
Tabular
Methods
Frequency Dist
Rel. Freq. Dist.
% Freq. Dist.
Crosstabulation
Graphical
Methods
Bar Graph
1. Simple
2. Multiple
3. Component
4. Pie Chart
Quantitative Data
Tabular
Methods
Frequency Dist.
Rel. Freq. Dist.
Cum. Freq. Dist.
Cum. Rel. Freq.
Stem-and-Leaf
Display
Cross Tabulation
Graphical
Methods
Histogram
Freq Polygon
Ogive
Freq Curve
18
Quantitative data
Quantitative
Data
Discrete
Data
Frequency Distribution
Line Chart
Continuous
Data
Frequency Distribution
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Ogive
Frequency Curve
Discrete data Frequency
Dist
Suppose we walk in the nursery class of a
school and we count the no. of Books that
students have in their bags.
Class strength = 45
Suppose the no. of books are 3, 5, 7, 7, 8, 8,
9, 9, 9, 4, 4, 5, and so on.
Representation of Data in a Discrete
Frequency Distribution
X
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
Tally
|
|||
|||| ||||
|||| |||| |||
|||| ||||
|||
|||| |
Frequency
1
3
9
13
10
3
6
45
Graphical Representation of
Discrete Data
14
12
No. of students
10
8
6
4
2
0
3
No. of books and copies
Frequency Distribution
Tabular arrangement of data in which
various items are arranged into classes
or groups and the number of items
falling in each class is stated.
The number of observations falling in a
particular class is referred to as class
frequency "f".
Data presented in the form of a
frequency distribution is also called
grouped data.
Some definitions
Class Limits
The class limits are defined as the number or the
values of the variables which are used to separate
two classes. Sometimes classes are taken as 20--25,
25--30 etc In such a case, these class limits means "
20 but less than 25", "25 but less than 30" etc
Class marks or midpoints
The class mark or the midpoint is that value which
divides a class into two equal parts. It is obtained by
dividing the sum of lower and upper class limits or
class boundaries of a class by 2.
Class interval
The difference between either two successive lower
class limits or two successive upper class limits OR
Construction of a frequency
distribution
1. Decide the number of classes: K=1+3.3
log(n) or
2. Determine the range of variation of the data
i.e,
R= Max Min
3. Determine the approximate size of class
interval
4. Decide where to locate the class limits
5. Distribute the data into appropriate classes
Example
The following data is the final height (cm) of
thirty plants of wheat. Construct a frequency
distribution:
87918988899187929098959796100 101
96989998100 102 99101 105 103 107 105
106 107 112
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
86----90
91----95
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
86----90
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
86----90
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
Tally
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
Tally
Freque
ncy
f
86----90
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
10
6
3
1
30
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
86----90
Tally
Freque
ncy
f
c.f
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
10
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
10
20
26
29
30
30
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
86----90
Tally
Freque
ncy
f
c.f
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
10
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
10
20
26
29
30
30
r.f
0.20
0
0.13
3
0.33
3
0.20
0
0.10
0
0.03
3
1.00
0
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
86----90
Tally
Freque
ncy
f
c.f
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
10
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
10
20
26
29
30
30
r.f
%
frequ
ency
0.20
0
0.13
3
0.33
3
0.20
0
0.10
0
0.03
3
1.00
0
20.0
0
13.3
3
33.3
3
20.0
0
10.0
0
3.33
100
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
86----90
Tally
Freque
ncy
f
c.f
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
10
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
10
20
26
29
30
30
r.f
%
frequ
ency
0.20
0
0.13
3
0.33
3
0.20
0
0.10
0
0.03
3
1.00
0
20.0
0
13.3
3
33.3
3
20.0
0
10.0
0
Cumulat
ive
%
frequen
cy
20.00
33.33
66.67
86.67
96.67
3.33
100.00
100
Frequency Distribution
Class
limits
Class
boundaries
Tally
Freque
ncy
f
c.f
86----90
85.5----90.5
91----95
90.5----95.5
10
96---100
101---105
106---110
111---115
95.5---100.5
100.5---105.5
105.5---110.5
110.5---115.5
10
20
26
29
30
30
r.f
0.20
0
0.13
3
0.33
3
0.20
0
0.10
0
0.03
3
1.00
0
%
frequ
ency
20.0
0
13.3
3
33.3
3
20.0
0
10.0
0
Cumulat
ive
%
frequen
cy
Midpoi
nt
X
88
20.00
93
33.33
98
66.67
103
86.67
108
96.67
113
3.33
100.00
100