Development across the life span
Learning Objective Menu
LO 8.1 Human development
LO 8.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes, DNA and multiple births
LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
LO 8.6
Looking at cognitive development
LO 8.7
Developing personalities, forming relationships and
Eriksons first four stages of psychosocial development
LO 8.8How adolescents develop
formal operation, moral thinking and adolescents search for identity
LO 8.9 Main physical changes during adulthood and aging
LO 8.1 0 Theories of why aging occurs
First Factor : Genetic
Human development and its determinants
Human development - the scientific
study of the changes that occur in
people as they age from conception
until death
Behavioral genetics focuses on
nature vs. nurture.
Nature - the influence of our
our personality,
physical growth,
intellectual growth,
and social interactions.
inherited characteristics on
Nurture - the influence of the
environment on personality,
physical growth, intellectual growth, and
social interactions.
The Basic Building Blocks of Development
Nature: Chromosomes,
Genes, and DNA
How do chromosomes,
genes, and DNA determine
a persons characteristics
or disorders?
Genetics is the science of
heredity. Understanding
how genes transmit human
characteristics.
Everybody has 1 00 Trillion =
1 01 4 of human cells
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is
a very special kind of molecule
(the smallest particle of a
substance that still has all the
properties of that substance).
DNA consists of two very long
sugarphosphate strands,
each linked together by certain
chemical elements called
amines.
Each section of DNA containing a
certain sequence (ordering) of
these amines is called a gene.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
These genes are located
on rod-shaped structures
called chromosomes,
which are found in the
nucleus of a cell.
Humans have a total of
46 chromosomes in
each cell of their bodies
23 of these
chromosomes come
from the mothers egg
and the other 23 from the
fathers sperm.
GENETIC AND CHROMOSOME PROBLEMS
Genetic disorders;
Diseases carried by recessive genes
are inherited when a child inherits two
recessive genes, one from each parent.
1. phenylketonuria (PKU), in which an
infant is born without the ability to break
down phenylalanine
Phenylalanine, an amino acid controlling
coloring of the skin and hair.
If levels of phenylalanine build up,
brain damage can occur;
if untreated, it can result in severe
intellectual disabilities.
2. Sometimes the chromosome
itself is the problem.
A chromosome can end up in
the wrong cell,
leaving one cell with only 22
and the other with 24.
Down syndrome, a chromosome
disorders in which there is an extra
chromosome in what would
normally be the 2 1 st pair.
Symptoms commonly include the
physical characteristics of almondshaped,
wide-set eyes,
as well as intellectual disability.
Other chromosome disorders occur when
there is an extra sex chromosome in the
23rd pair,
3. such as Klinefelters syndrome, in which
the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY,
with the extra X
producing a male with reduced masculine
characteristics,
enlarged breasts,
obesity,
and excessive height.
4. Turners syndrome, in which the 23rd pair
is actually missing an X, so that the result
is alone X chromosome.
These females tend to be
very short,
infertile,
and sexually under developed
Second Factor: Conception
Conception - the moment
at which a female
becomes pregnant.
Ovum- the female sex cell,
or egg.
Fertilization - the union of
the ovum and sperm.
Zygote - cell resulting from
the uniting of the ovum and
sperm;
divides into many cells,
eventually forming the baby.
Genetics and Development
Monozygotic twins
identical twins
formed when one zygote splits into
two separate masses of cells, each
of which develops into a separate
embryo.
Dizygotic twins often
called fraternal twins,
occurring when two eggs each get
fertilized by two different sperm,
resulting in two zygotes
in the uterus/womb at the same
time.
Conception and Twins
Figure 8.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come
from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.
Periods of Pregnancy
A) Germinal period - first
two weeks after
fertilization,
1. during which the zygote
moves down to the
uterus
2. and begins to implant in
the lining embryo
Periods of Pregnancy
B) Embryonic period - the
period from two to eight weeks
after fertilization,
1 .during which the major
organs and structures of the
organism develop.
Critical periods
times during which certain
environmental influences can
have an impact on the
development of the infant.
Teratogen - any factor that can
cause a birth defect.
Third Factor: Birth
A) Five Infant Reflexes;
Infants are born with reflexes that help the infant survive
(a) Grasping reflex;
(b) Startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); a response to a
sudden loss of support, when the infant feels as if it is falling.
(c) Rooting reflex (when you touch a babys cheek it will turn toward
your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);
(d) Stepping reflex;
(e) Sucking reflex.
These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infants
nervous system.
If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or
some other neurological problem.
B) Six Motor Milestones
(a) Raising head and chest 2 to 4 months,
(b) Rolling over 2 to 5 months,
(c) Sitting up with support 4 to 6 months,
The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the
muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward.
This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later
development of control of the legs and feet.
(d) Sitting up without support 6 to 7 months,
(e) Crawling 7 to 8 months,
(f) Walking 8 to 1 8 months.
Cognitive development - a mental
concept formed through experiences
with objects and events.
the development of thinking,
problem solving, and memory
scheme
1. Sensorimotor stage Birth to 2
years ( senses are handy tools)
in which the infant uses its senses
and motor abilities to interact with
objects in the environment.
Object permanence - the
knowledge that an object
exists even when it is not in
sight. ( Mental image)
Cognitive Development
2. Preoperational stage 2 to 7 years ( Language is the
handy tool)
the preschool child learns to use language as a means of
exploring the world.
2.1 Egocentrism - the inability to see the world through
anyone elses eyes.
2.2 Centration - in Piagets theory, the tendency of a
young child to focus only on one feature of an object
while ignoring other relevant features.
Example: a child may complain that there is little ice
cream left in a big bowl. The child will be satisfied if the
ice cream is transferred to a little bowl, even though
nothing is added, because he only considers how full
the bowl appears to be.
2.3 Conservation - the ability to understand that
simply changing the appearance of an object does
not change the objects nature.
2.4 Irreversibility - the inability of the young child to
mentally reverse an action.
They can not conserve , logically reason, and
simultaneously consider many characteristics of an
object.
3. Concrete operations stage: (7-12 yrs.)
the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes, conserve,
and mentally reverse an action but is not yet capable of abstract thinking.
4. Formal operations: the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking
and test hypothesis.
Figure 8.7 Conservation Experiment
A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same
size and shape.
When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet
conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second
glass now has more water than the first one.
In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines.
When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the
top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.
Stages of Language Development
1 . Cooing ( making a sound)
2 . Babbling
the random production of
meaningless vocal sounds
characteristic of
infants after about the sixth
week.
3 . One-word speech
(holophrases)
4 . Telegraphic speech
Temperament
Temperament - the behavioral characteristics that
are fairly well established at birth.
Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy
Difficult - irregular, non adaptable, and irritable
Slow to warm up - need to adjust gradually to change.
Attachment
Attachment - the emotional bond between an infant
and the primary caregiver.
Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother departs but
easily soothed upon her return.
Avoidant unattached; explore without "touching base.
Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves
and then angry with mother upon her return.
Eriksons First Four Stages
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development is one of the best-known
theories of personality in psychology.
1. One of the main elements of Erikson's
psychosocial stage theory is the
development of ego identity.
Ego identity is the conscious sense of self
that we develop through social interaction.
2. it is constantly changing due to new
experiences and information we acquire
in our daily interactions with others.
3. As we face each new stage of development,
we face a new challenge that can help
further develop or hinder the development of
identity.
Eriksons First Four Stages
4. Our personal identity gives each of us an
integrated and cohesive sense of self that
endures and continues to grow as we age.
5. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also
believed that a sense of competence
motivates behaviors and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned
with becoming competent in an area of life.
5 .1 If the stage is handled well, the person
will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality.
5 .2 If the stage is managed poorly, the
person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy.
Eriksons First Four Stages
1. Trust versus mistrust Birth to 1
year old
first stage of personality
development in which the infants
basic sense of trust or mistrust
develops as a result of consistent or
inconsistent care.
2. Autonomy versus shame and
doubt 1 to 3 years
second stage of personality
development in which the toddler
strives for physical independence.
Eriksons First Four Stages
3. Initiative versus guilt 3 to 5
years old
third stage of personality
development in which the
preschool-aged child strives for
emotional and psychological
independence and attempts to
satisfy curiosity about the world.
4. Industry versus inferiority 5 to
12 years old
the adolescent strives for a sense of
competence and self-esteem.
Table 8.4 (continued) Eriksons Psychosocial Stages of Development
Adolescence - the period
of life from about age 1 3 to
the early twenties, during
which a young person
is no longer physically a
child but
is not yet an independent,
self-supporting adult.
Puberty - the physical
changes that occur in the
body as sexual
development reaches its
peak.
Period of about four years.
Puberty and Adolescence
Egocentric Thinking
Personal fable
type of thought common to
adolescents in which young people
believe themselves to be unique
and protected from harm.
Imaginary audience - type of
thought common to adolescents in
which young people believe that
other people are just as concerned
about the adolescents thoughts and
characteristics as they themselves
are.
Example of a Moral Dilemma
Source: Kohlberg, 1 9 69 , p. 3 79 .
Development of Morality
Pre conventional morality
first level of Kohlbergs stages of moral development in
which the childs behavior is governed by the
consequences of the behavior.
Conventional morality
second level of Kohlbergs stages of moral development in
which the childs behavior is governed by conforming to
the societys norms of behavior.
Post conventional morality
third level of Kohlbergs stages of moral development in
which the persons behavior is governed by moral
principles that have been decided on by the
individual and which may be in disagreement with
accepted social norms.
Physical Changes and Aging
Adulthood begins in the early twenties
and ends with death in old age.
Divided into young adulthood,
middle adulthood,
and late adulthood.
1. Women experience a physical decline
in the reproductive system called the
climacteric,
ending at about age 5 0 with menopause the cessation of ovulation and
menstrual cycles and the end of a
womans reproductive capability.
2. Andropause - gradual changes in the
sexual hormones and reproductive
system of males.
3. Increase in health problems, decrease
in reaction time, and stability in
intelligence and memory.
Eriksons Last Three Stages
Intimacy - an emotional and
psychological closeness that is
based on the ability to trust,
share, and care, while still
maintaining a sense of self.
Generativity - providing guidance
to ones children or the next
generation, or contributing to the
well-being of the next generation
through career or volunteer work.
Ego integrity - sense of
wholeness that comes from
having lived a full life and the
ability to let go of regrets; the final
completion of the ego.
Theories of Aging
Activity theory - theory of adjustment to
aging that assumes older people are
happier if they remain active in some way,
such as volunteering or developing a
hobby.
Cellular clock theory - based on the idea
that cells only have so many times that
they can reproduce; once that limit is
reached, damaged cells begin to
accumulate.
Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes by,
repeated use and abuse of the bodys
tissues cause it to be unable to repair all
the damage.
Free radical theory - oxygen molecules
with an unstable electron move around the
cell, damaging cell structures as they go.