IMAGING PHYSICS
Department of radiology -imaging
University of Medicine and
Pharmacy Iasi
INTRODUCTION
W.C. Roentgen discovered X- rays in 1895.
G. M. Hounsfield discovered in 1972 the
principle of computed tomography.
Magnetic resonance imaging.
IMAGING METHODS
Imaging methods - classification
- invasive methods – are using ionizing radiations
- X- rays (used in roentgen diagnosis, CT)
Radioactive tracers (radionuclide imaging)
- noninvasive methods: are not using ionizing
radiations:
- magnetic field and radiofrequency waves (MRI)
- sound waves (US)
X- RAY PHYSICS
X-rays are obtained from a x –ray tube
x–ray tube = an energy converter
Receives electrical energy
Produces heat + x-rays
Cathode – tungsten filament (heated at > 2200° C
produces electrons) + negatively charged focusing
cup directs the ē in a beam toward anode
Anode – converts the ē energy in x-rays
Dissipates heat
Vacuum tube
X- RAY PHISICS
The high voltage electric current passes
through the cathode heated induces a
stream of electrons strikes the anode x-
rays
99% - heat, 1% x-rays
x-rays are electromagnetic waves with short
wavelenght penetrate dense materials
X- RAY PHISICS
X- RAY PHISICS
IMAGING TEHNIQUES
The techniques used in projection x-rays image:
Direct analogue technique
Indirect analogue technique
Digital techniques
IMAGING TEHNIQUES
Direct analogue technique
The x-ray image is created on a detector medium:
1. radiographic film - direct radiography
- film base (polyester), emulsion (silver bromide crystals),
supercoating (gelatin)
silver bromide crystals are ionized by the photon energy
silver ions latent image the image is visible when the
film is developed fixed washed dried
The no. of photons transmitted to the film density of
black silver granules varying degrees of blackening
The highest radiation intensity the darkest area
IMAGING TEHNIQUES
Direct analogue technique
- The x-ray image is created on a detector medium
2. fluorescent screen – direct fluoroscopy
- the transmitted x-ray beam fell on a fluorescent screen is
emitting visible light (fluorescence) dynamic projection
light image observed from the opposite side of the
screen by the radiologist
- the screen luminance was low 15 min of dark adaptation
direct fluoroscopy – is replaced by indirect
fluoroscopy – x-ray image intensifiers
IMAGING TEHNIQUES
Indirect analogue techniques
Modern fluoroscopy – the primary projection
image is created on a fluorescent screen
The screen is part of an x-ray image intensifier
enhances the brightness of the primary image TV
monitor
filming with a still camera = fluorography
IMAGING TEHNIQUES
Digital techniques – variants
Exposure to the x-rays latent image on special imaging
plates scanned with a laser beam energy is released
as light recorded by a photo detector analogue
signals digitized image in gray scale
Digitizing the analogue video signal coming from a image
intensifier television system
The digitized image
Displayed on a monitor – digital fluoroscopy
Photographed with a camera – digital fluorography
DIGITAL
DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
RADIOGRAPHY
FLUOROSCOPY
FLUOROSCOPY
BARIUM
BARIUMENEMA
ENEMA
DIAGNOSTIC
DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND
ULTRASOUND
- US – transducer narrow beam of ultrasound into the body
reflected from the tissues back to the transducer (echoes)
Sound waves with frequences = 2-13 Mhz.
-transducer = generates and receives the ultrasounds
- piezo – electrical crystals – electrical potential
/mechanical deformation
-the echoes are amplified
-displayed on a monitor
The intensity of ultrasound in reduced by passage through the
tissues = attenuation
DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND
A mode (amplitude) –
TM mode - the motion patterns of cardiaque valves, walls
B mode – a gray scale two dimensional sectional display of
the anatomy
Doppler - measurement of blood flow velocity
Color Doppler – presence and direction of the blood flow
in colour code
spectral Doppler – graphique
Color flow imaging - presence of the flow, sensible for
slow motion
DIAGNOSTIC
DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND
ULTRASOUND
DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND
B MODE => ultrasound semiology
•black : anechoic – liquid (vessel, cyst, gallbladder);
•white: hyperechoic - gas, stone, interface;
•gray: liver, spleen
•INTERFACE: the separation between 2 tissues with different
acoustic impedance (vascular walls) - hyperechoic
•Acoustic shadow: ABSENCE OF THE SIGNAL (posterior to the
zones of maximum de reflexion; ex.: stones, gas, bones).
DIAGNOSTIC
DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND
ULTRASOUND
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
ABDOMINAL = abdominal organs, vessels;
CARDIAC = morphology, kinetics;
VASCULAR = B mode B, Doppler;
SMALL PARTS = thyroid, breast, muscles, joints;
OBSTERICS = normal and pathological pregnancy
DIGESTIVE = ENDOSONOGRAPHY (esophagus, rectum);
INTERVENTIONAL: guidance of percutaneus punctions.
DIAGNOSTIC
DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND
ULTRASOUND
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
CT is a x-ray imaging method that produces images of selected planes
through the patient’s body
3 steps in creating a CT image:
Scanning with the x-ray beam
The x-ray beam is rotated 360º around the patient’s body penetrates
different tissues attenuated electronic radiation detectors
measures the resulting x-rays data stored in a computer
Image reconstruction – after the scan is completed – the computer
processes the data from each slice forms a numerical image to each
small volume (voxel) is corresponding a small part of the image (pixel)
Conversion of the numerical image to a visible image – on the monitor –
each pixel is given a shade of gray according to the attenuation of the
corresponding voxel
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
CT scanning allows measurement of tissue attenuation attenuation
no. (CT no.)
Hounsfield unit (HU) – water = 0, air = – 1000, dense bone = +1000
Components of the computed tomography system are:
- gantry - mobile circle wich has the x-ray tube and the detectors
- the table for the patient;
- x-ray generator;
- computer;
- terminal – keyboard, monitor ;
- storage system : CD-R, film, paper
Four generation of CT systems
Spiral CT – during the exposure – continuous linear movement of the
table + a continuous rotation of the tube and detectors
COMPUTED
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
TOMOGRAPHY
MEGNETIC RESONANCE
IMAGING (MRI)
MRI uses radiowaves and a magnetic field (0,2-3 T) to obtain
sections in any plain of the body
Some nuclei (H+) behave like small magnets
An external magnetic field force the nuclei to align in the
direction of the magnetic field
A pulse of radiowaves displaces the n. from their alignment
the pulse ceases the n. return they release the energy
absorbed as a radiosignal is detected with the coils
converted by a computer into an image
Sequences: SE, FSE, GE, IR
Indications – brain, spinal cord, joints
MEGNETIC RESONANCE
IMAGING (MRI)
Components of the MRI system:
- magnet,
- RF coils - produce and receive radiowaves,
- table, computer, storage system
• Advantages :
- absence of ionizing radiations;
- produces images in any plane;
- high intrinsic contrast
Disadvantages
High cost, lower availability
Inability to image bone and calcifications
Unsuitable for patients with pacemakers, metallic clips,
implants
MEGNETIC
MEGNETIC RESONANCE
RESONANCE
IMAGING
IMAGING (MRI)
(MRI)
MEGNETIC
MEGNETIC RESONANCE
RESONANCE
IMAGING
IMAGING (MRI)
(MRI)
RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING
Involves detection of radiation emitted from a radioactive
tracer inside the patient
radioactive tracer = unstable atoms (decay spontaneously
with the emission of gamma photons) + carrier molecule
Detector – gamma camera
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT )
- the gamma camera rotates around the patient
- Tc99m – iv injection - liver, spleen, bones, kidneys,
pulmonary perfusion
- Xe is inhaled – pulmonary ventilation
- taliu 201, In 111 – myocardial perfusion
- I 131 - thyroid
RADIONUCLIDE
RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING
IMAGING
RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING
PET- POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
- F-18 deoxiglucoze – quantitative estimation of
radionuclide concentration
- clinical applications –
- brain function
- tumoral pathology
P.E.T.
CONTRAST MEDIA
Conventional radiology and CT
Negative contrast media – gas – attenuate x-rays less
then the soft tissues – because contains a lower no. of
radiation attenuating atoms
Air, O2, CO2 – combined with water suspension of Ba
double contrast
Positive CM
Barium contrast media – suspention of barium sulphate for
gastro - intestinal studies
CONTRAST MEDIA
Positive CM
Water soluble iodine CM – for iv urography,
angiography, CT
Non –ionic – lower adverse reactions - urticaria,
Quincke edema, vasovagal reaction, anaphylactic
reaction, shock
Risc factors – allergy, bronchial asthma, cardiac
disease, renal failure, multiple mieloma
Water insoluble iodine CM - for
lymphangiography
CONTRAST MEDIA
CM for ultrasound
Micro bubbles of gas iv increase ecogenicity
CM for MRI – atoms with one / several
unpaired ē large magnetic moment
improves the signal differences between the
tissues
Paramegnetic - Gd
super – paramagnetic – iron oxides