Chapter 1:
Introduction to Statistics
PowerPoint Lecture Slides
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences
Seventh Edition
by Frederick J Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau
Chapter 1 Learning Outcomes
Math Skills Assessment
Statistics makes use of basic math skills
The Math Skills Assessment in Appendix A
allows you to determine whether you need to
review any of these skills.
The Math Skills Review in Appendix A
provides a quick refresher course on those
areas.
The final Math Skills Assessment checks your
learning
1.1 Statistics, Science and
Observations
Statistics: short for statistical procedures
Uses of Statistics
Used to organize and summarize information
Used to determine exactly what conclusions
are justified based on the results that were
obtained
Goals of statistical procedures
Accurate and meaningful interpretation
Provide standardized procedures
1.2 Populations and Samples
Population
The set of all the individuals of interest in a
particular study
Vary in size; often quite large
Sample
A set of individuals selected from a population
Usually intended to represent the population
in a research study
Variables and Data
Variable
Characteristic or condition that changes or has
different values for different individuals
Data (plural)
Measurements or observations of a variable
Data set
A collection of measurements or observations .
A datum (singular)
A single measurement or observation
Commonly called a score or raw score
Figure 1.1
The relationship between a population and a sample.
Parameters and Statistics
Parameter
A value, usually a
numerical value, that
describes a population
Derived from
measurements of
the individuals in
the population
Statistic
A value, usually a
numerical value, that
describes a sample
Derived from
measurements of
the individuals in
the sample
Descriptive & Inferential Statistics
Descriptive statistics
Summarize data
Organize data
Simplify data
Familiar examples
Tables
Graphs
Averages
Inferential statistics
Study samples to make
generalizations about
the population
Interpret experimental
data
Common terminology
Margin of error
Statistically significant
Sampling Error
Sample is never identical to population
Sampling Error
The discrepancy, or amount of error, that
exists between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter
Example: Margin of Error in Polls
This poll was taken from a sample of registered
voters and has a margin of error of plus-or-minus 4
percentage points (Box 1.1)
Figure 1.2
A demonstration of sampling error
Figure 1.3
Role of statistics in experimental research.
Learning Check
A researcher is interested in the effect of amount
of sleep on high school students exam scores.
A group of 75 high school boys agree to
participate in the study. The boys are
Learning Check - Answer
A researcher is interested in the effect of amount
of sleep on high school students exam scores.
A group of 75 high school boys agree to
participate in the study. The boys are
Learning Check
Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
Learning Check - Answer
1.3 Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Statistics
Relationships between variables
Each variable considered separately
Relationships among variables
Correlational method
Two variables for each subject in one group
Purpose is to determine whether there is a
relationship between the variables
Figure 1.4
Data structures for studies evaluating the relationship
between variables
Comparing Groups of Scores
One variable defines the groups
Scores are measured on second variable
Experimental and Non-experimental studies
use this structure
Figure 1.5
Data structure for studies comparing groups
Experimental Method
Goal of Experimental Method
To demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship
Manipulation
The level of one variable is determined by the
experimenter
Control rules out influence of other variables
Participant variables
Environmental variables
Control in the Experimental Method
Methods of control
Random assignment of subjects
Matching of subjects
Holding level of some potentially influential variables
constant
Control condition
Individuals do not receive the experimental treatment.
They either receive no treatment or they receive a neutral,
placebo treatment.
Purpose: to provide a baseline for comparison with the
experimental condition
Experimental condition
Individuals do receive the experimental treatment
Figure 1.6
The structure of an experiment
Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable is the variable
manipulated by the researcher
Independent because no other variable in the
study influences its value
Dependent Variable is the one observed to
assess the effect of treatment
Dependent because its value is thought to
depend on the value of the independent
variable
Figure 1.7
Two examples of nonexperimental studies
Nonexperimental Methods
Nonequivalent Groups
Researcher compares groups
Researcher cannot control who goes into
which group
Pre-test / Post-test
Individuals measured at two points in time
Researcher cannot control influence of the
passage of time
Independent variable is quasi-independent
Learning Check
Researchers observed that students exam
scores were higher the more sleep they
had the night before. This study is
Learning Check - Answer
Researchers observed that students exam
scores were higher the more sleep they
had the night before. This study is
Learning Check
Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
Learning Check - Answer
1.4 Variables and Measurement
Scores are the results of observations of
variables
Scores result from particular measurement
procedures for each variable
Constructs and
Operational Definitions
Constructs
Internal attributes
or characteristics
that cannot be
directly observed
Useful for
describing and
explaining behavior
Operational Definition
Identifies a
measurement
procedure for
measuring an external
behavior
Uses the resulting
measurements as a
definition and a
measurement of a
hypothetical construct
Discrete and Continuous Variables
Discrete variable
Has separate, indivisible categories
No values can exist between two neighboring
categories
Continuous variable
There are an infinite number of possible
values between any two observed values.
Is divisible into an infinite number of parts
Figure 1.8
Example: Discrete and Continuous Measurement
Real Limits of Continuous Variables
Real Limits are the boundaries of intervals
for scores of measured on a continuous
number line.
The real limit separating two adjacent scores
is exactly halfway between the scores.
Each score has two real limits.
The upper real limit is at the top of
the interval
The lower real limit is at the bottom of
the interval
Scales of Measurement
Measurement assigns individuals or events to
categories
The categories can simply be names such as
male/female or employed/unemployed
They can be numerical values such as 68 inches
or 175 pounds
The complete set of categories makes up a
scale of measurement
Relationships between the categories determine
different types of scales
Scales of Measurement
Learning Check
A study assesses the optimal size
(number of other members) for study
groups. The variable Size of group is
Learning Check - Answer
A study assesses the optimal size
(number of other members) for study
groups. The variable Size of group is
Learning Check
Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
Learning Check - Answer
1.5 Statistical Notation
Statistics uses operations and notation you
have already learned
Appendix A has a Mathematical Review
Statistics also uses some specific notation
Scores are referred to as X (and Y)
N is the number of scores in a population
n is the number of scores in a sample
Summation Notation
Many statistical procedures sum (add up) a
set of scores
The summation sign stands for summation
The is followed by a symbol or equation that
defines what is to be summed
Summation is done after operations in
parentheses, squaring, and multiplication or
division.
Summation is done before other addition or
subtraction
Learning Check
47 instructs you to
Learning Check - Answer
47 instructs you to
Learning Check
Decide if each of the following equations
is True or False.
X X X
Learning Check - Answer