MODULE 4

INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES

AND TERMINATING DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
After a mechanical quantity is detected and possibly transduced, it is
necessary that the stage first output be further modified, before it is in
satisfactory form for driving an indicator or recorder
Measurement of dynamic mechanical quantities places severe requirement
on the elements of intermediate modifying devices
Usually, a large amplification, good transient response is required, which are
very difficult to obtain by mechanical or pneumatic or hydraulic methods
Hence, we go for electrical and electronic elements

An input signal is often converted by the first stage to a displacement, in such cases the
displacement is fed to mechanical intermediate elements such as linkages, gearing, cams etc.

An input signal is often converted by the detector (primary transducer) in the first stage to a
displacement and in turn converted into a form, often electrical by the secondary transducer, in such
cases the output of first stage devices is further processed by Intermediate modifying stage.

Inherent problems in Mechanical Systems

The mechanisms present in the mechanical systems have some inherent problems such as,
1. Kinematic linearity
2. Reflected frictional amplification
3. Reflected inertial amplification
4. Amplification of backlash and elastic deformation
5. Tolerance problems
6. Temperature problems

Kinematic linearity
Any
linkage
used
as
a
mechanical
amplifier
must
provide
same
gain
(amplification=output/input) over its entire range of output. i.e. it must be linear. For this
purpose, it is very important to have control and tolerances on linkage dimension and pivot
locations.
When Mechanical amplification (output displacement or velocity/ input displacement or
velocity)is used, inertial loading, elastic deformation, frictional loading, backlash errors
causes a problem.

Frictional amplification: There will be no loss energy other than losses due to friction
Sources of friction in the linkages will result in a force that gets amplified between the source and the input, because
of mechanical amplification. This effect is called as reflected frictional amplification
If there are several sources of such friction, all these sources will lead to forces which gets amplified and reflected to
the input.
Reflected frictional amplification = gain * Ff
Total Reflected frictional amplification (Ffr) = gain * Ff
Ff = Frictional force at source
Reflected inertial amplification: Inertial forces cause problems similar to those cause by frictional forces. Their
effects also will be reflected back to the input in proportion to the mechanical amplification existing between the
source of the force and the input point. The sources of inertial forces are distributed where as the forces of friction are
concentrated.
Total Reflected frictional amplification (Fir) = gain * Fi
The inertial forces results from accelaration (a), and a varies directly with square of velocity. Hence inertial effects
becomes increasingly important as speeds increase and duration of the signal internal reduces.
Total Reflected forces = Fr = Ffr + Fir

Amplification of backlash and elastic deformation

backlash, is a clearance or lost motion in a mechanism caused by gaps between the parts
Backlash results from temporary non-constraint in a linkage caused by clearances required in
mechanical fits, where relative motion occurs.
Backlash and elastic deformation cause a lost motion at the output signal equal to the backlash
multiplied by the amplification between the source and the output.
Elastic deformation is brought about by loads and forces, carried by links
Total projected displacement loss resulting from backlash =

ybp = gain * yb

Total projected displacement loss at the output resulting from elastic deformation,
Yp =

ybp + yep

yep = gain * yb

Tolerance problems
Still another problem particularly inherent in mechanical instrumentation is that of dimensional
tolerances. The tolerances results in lost motion. Hence by keeping tolerance range as min as
possible we can minimize lost motion due to tolerances, but can not be completely avoided
Temperature problems
Cause dimensional changes and changes in the physical properties, both elastic and electrical,
resulting in deviation referred to as Zero shift and scale error
Zero shift: Results in change in the no-input reading. This depends mainly on temperature and also
primarily a function of linear dimensional changes caused by expansion or contraction with changing
temperatures.
Methods to minimize temperature problems
1. Minimization through careful selection of materials and operating temperatures ranges(Select
materials which have low coefficient of expansion)
2. Compensation: through balancing of inversely reacting elements effects
3. By elimination-Through temperature control

ADVANTAGES
OF ELECTRICAL
METHODS
Electrical devices, used in Intermediate
modifying stage, are not burdened by
inertial, frictional losses and also they
are not relatively heavy and bulky
May be used for power amplification,
voltage amplification or both

ELECTRICAL
INTERMEDIATE
MODIFYING
DEVICES
Introduction
Many mechanical inputs are transduced to analogus electrical signal by the stage I devices. Such
transduced information must be modified before becoming useful for driving the final indicator
or recorder.
Such modifications are voltage, power or both amplification.
If an indicator is used as the terminating device, voltage amplification is sufficient
If a recorder is used as the terminating device, voltage amplification and power amplification is
required

INPUT
CIRCUITRY
We know the first stage detector
transducer can be passive (require
auxiliary power source) or active (self
powering).
Connect the active detector transducer
directly with a minimum of circuitry
But the passive detector transducer
requires special arrangement to
introduce auxiliary energy. The
arrangement required depends on the
operating principle involved.

The following is the list of input

circuits used in transducer work.
1. Simple current sensitive circuits
2. Ballast circuits
3. Voltage dividing circuits
4. Voltage balancing potentiometer
circuits
5. Bridge circuits
6. Resonant circuits

SIMPLE
CURRENT
SENSITIVE
CIRCUITS

Here, the flow of current through a passive resistance transducer as an

indication of value of the resistance.
The resistance of transducer changes when there is a change in physical
quantity being measured, thereby causing a change in the current.
Let
Rt=maximum resistance of the
transducer,
kRt= Resistance of the transducer
when measuring a particular value
of physical quantity (k is a % factor
which varies with qty to be
measured, varies from 0-100%)
Rm= Resistance of the measuring
circuit excluding the transducer.

By Ohms law, the current indicated

by the indicator is given by:

The maximum value of current occurs when k=0.

The variation of (io/imax) ratio

with k for various values of
(Rt/Rm), io represents the
output signal and k depends
on the input signal and hence
represents the input.

Input-output relationship for a current sensitive circuit which is non linear

which is undesirable.
Also higher the ratio (Rt/Rm) , the greater is the output variation.
It can also be noted that the output io is a function of imax, which in turn is dependent on
ei .
This means that CAREFUL CONTROL OF THE DRIVING VOLTAGE IS NECESSARY IF

BALLAST
CIRCUIT
(VOLTAGE
Instead of current sensitive indicator or
recorder
through which current flows, a
SENSITIVE
voltage sensitive device is connected
CIRCUIT)
across
the transducer (some form of
voltmeter) is used.

A ballast resistor Rb is the resistance of

the measuring circuit excluding the
transducer.
In the absence of a ballast resistor, the
voltage indicator will always record the full
source voltage ei & hence some value of
resistance Rb is always necessary for
proper functioning of the circuit.
In order to analyze a ballast circuit, we
assume that the voltage indicator has an
infinite resistance such that it does not
draw any current

ELECTRONIC AMPLIFICATION
OR GAIN
There
are two ways to define this

It may be simply defined as a ration of the output to input voltages, currents or

powers, i.e.
Voltage gain, Current gain, Power gain
Another way is to specify amplification is to use decibels
Dlog10(P2/P1), P2 is output power in watts and P1 is input power in watts.
Solving this equation for P2/P1 corresponding to one decibel yields a ration of 1.26.
That is approximately 26% increase in power is required for the average human
ear to just to detect an increase in sound output from the amplifier.

ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIERS

Anelectronic
circuitis composed of electronic components, such as
resistors,transistors,capacitors,inductorsanddiodes, connected by
conductivewires through whichelectric currentcan flow.
In mechanical measurements these amplifiers are used to provide
Voltage gain, current gain and power gain
Power gain may be written as
voltage, i is current. So the

or Z, where Z is impedance and e is

P2/P1)
= 10log10(e22/e12 ) or 10log10(i22/i12 )

edance has been removed in the above equation assuming that the input and output impedance
to get higher power gain it is necessary to keep the impedance at lower level. For this purpose a
mation device called as BUFFER is used which converts high impedance input to low impedan

Single stage amplifiers (Vacuum tube amplifier)

Simple single stage amplifier circuit.

 In this, the electrons emitted from a heated cathode are

attracted to a positively charged plate, causing a current to flow
in the plate circuit
The flow of electrons is controlled by a grid which is placed
between the cathode and the plate.
The grid is properly negatively charged relative to cathode.
This negative voltage on the grid is called bias voltage.
Variations in the charge on the grid supplied by the input signal
controls the current flow in the plate circuit.
C supplies the necessary bias voltage, B provides the plate
supply, and A heats the cathode.
These voltages are drawn from a common supply using voltage
dividers or dropping resistors.
This illustrates a single stage amplification. Number of stages
may be connected together for greater amplifications.

TELEMETRY

(THE WORD IS DERIVED FROM GREEK ROOTS: TELE = REMOTE, AND

METRON = MEASURE)

Thetechnique
of
measurementofdataataremotesourceand
transmissionofthedatatoa monitoringstation.
Telemetryisused,forexample,
To
trackthemovementsofwildanimalsthathavebeen
taggedwithradiotransmitters.
Totransmit meteorologicaldatafromweatherballoonstoweather stations.
It is also applicable in missile and aircraft testing, and also used in industrial,
medical and transportation application.

Block diagram of general Telemetering System

Telemetry transmitting & receiving system

The telemetering transmitting system widely uses subcarrier
oscillators (SCO) whose frequencies are controlled by the input
signals through appropriate transducer elements.
A variety of audio- frequency channels may be employed, with the
frequency of each SCO modulated by the magnitude of the
corresponding input signals.

TERMINATING
DEVICES