Research:

Sampling a Population
Dr. [Link]
PRINCIPAL.
BILLROTH COLLEGE OF NURSING.
CHENNAI.

Sampling
The

process of selecting a number of

individuals for a study in such a way
that the individuals represent the
larger group from which they were
selected

Sample
Sample
the representatives selected for a
study whose characteristics
exemplify the larger group from
which they were selected

Population
Population
the larger group from which individuals
are selected to participate in a study

What is the purpose of sampling?

To draw conclusions about populations
from samples, We obtain a sample rather
than a complete enumeration (a census ) of
the population for many reasons..

The purpose for sampling

To gather

data about the population

in order to make an inference that
can be generalized to the population

Samples offer many benefits:

Save costs
Save time: Less time needed to study the sample
than the population .
Accuracy: Since sampling is done with care and
studies are conducted by skilled and qualified
interviewers, the results are expected to be accurate.

Limitations of Sampling
Demands

more rigid control in undertaking

sample operation.

Minority

and smallness in number of sub-groups

often render study to be suspected.

Accuracy

Sample

level may be affected when data is

subjected to weighing.

results are good approximations at best.

Factors influencing sampling:

Nature

and quality of the frame

Availability of auxiliary information
about units on the frame
Accuracy requirements, and the need to
measure accuracy
Whether detailed analysis of the sample
is expected
Cost/operational concerns

The sampling process

POPULATION
INFERENCE

SAMPLE

Regarding the sample

POPULATION (N)

IS THE SAMPLE
REPRESENTATIVE?

SAMPLE (n)

Regarding the inference

POPULATION (N)
INFERENCE
IS THE

SAMPLE (n)

INFERENCE
GENERALIZABLE?

Basics of sampling II
Sampling Process
Defining the
population

Developing
a sampling
Frame
Specifying
Sample
Method

Determining
Sample
Size

implementing plan &,SELECTING THE SAMPLE

Steps in sampling...
1. Define population (N) to be sampled
2. Developing the sampling frame
3 Determine sample size (n)
4. Control for bias and error
5. Select sample

1. Define population to be sampled...

Identify

the group of interest and

its characteristics to which the
findings of the study will be
generalized
called the target
target population
(the ideal selection)
oftentimes the accessible
accessible or
available
available population must be
used (the realistic selection)

Sampling: Step 2
[Link] the Sampling Frame
A sample

frame is the list of all elements in the

population (such as address, telephone
numbers,reports,age, gravida , AN registers,
consultant etc.) from which the samples are
drawn.

Errors in sampling frame

Missing elements: Some members of the
population are not included in the frame.
Foreign elements: The non-members of the
population are included in the frame.
Duplicate entries: A member of the population
is surveyed more than once.
Groups or clusters: The frame lists clusters
instead of individuals.
Having established the frame, there are a
number of ways for organizing it to improve
efficiency and effectiveness.

3. Determine the sample size...

The

size of the sample influences

both the representativeness of the
sample and the statistical analysis
of the data
larger samples are more likely
to detect a difference between
different groups
smaller samples are more likely
not to be representative

Rules of thumb for determining the

sample size...
1. The larger the population size, the
smaller the percentage of the
population required to get a
representative sample

2. If the population size is around 500

(give or take 100), 50% should be
sampled.
3. If the population size is around 1500,
20% should be sampled.
4.. Beyond a certain point (N = 5000), the
population size is almost irrelevant and
a sample size of 400 may be adequate.

Step - 3
Determination of Sample Size
Sample size may be determined by using:
Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)
Conventional approach: eg. Average of
sample sizes of similar other studies;

 Cost basis approach: The number that

can be studied with the available
funds;
Statistical formulae (more sophisticated
methods)
Confidence interval approach.

Sample size

4. Control for sampling bias and error...

Be

aware of the sources of sampling

bias and identify how to avoid it

5. Select the sample...

A process

by which the researcher

attempts to ensure that the sample
is representative of the population
from which it is to be selected
requires identifying the sampling
method that will be used

Approaches to quantitative sampling...

1. Random:
Random allows a procedure
governed by chance to select the
sample; controls for sampling bias
2. Nonrandom (nonprobability): does
not have random sampling at any
state of the sample selection;
increases probability of sampling bias

Random sampling methods...

1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
4. Systematic sampling

1. Simple random sampling:

sampling the process
of selecting a sample that allows
individual in the defined population to
have an equal and independent
chance of being selected for the
sample

SRS-Lottery method

SIMPLE RANDOM METHOD

Simple Random Sampling-RANDOM TABLE

Also called random

sampling
Simplest method of
probability sampling

Need to use
Random
Number Table

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1
2
3
4
5

37
50
99
70
18

75
91
14
72
46

10
56
23
01
06

49
41
50
00
49

98
52
21
33
47

66
82
01
25
32

03 86 34 80 98 44 22 22
98 11 57 96 27 10 27 16
03 25 79 07 80 54 55 41
19 16 23 58 03 78 47 43
58 08 75 29 63 66 89 09

45
35
12
77
22

83
34
15
88
35

53
47
15
15
97

86
01
03
02
74

23
36
68
55
30

51
08
56
67
80

6
7
8
9
10

65
83
58
54
56

76
76
90
74
81

34
95
07
67
92

11
25
84
11
73

33
70
20
15
40

60
60
98
78
07

95
13
57
21
20

51
82
42
02
59

78
84
46
54
15

76
99
34
51
46

45
02
61
78
09

26
64
44
76
75

45
00
01
76
64

11
12
13
14
15

34
02
43
92
67

99
26
04
56
42

06
92
25
51
43

21
27
36
22
26

22
95
00
11
20

38 22 32 85 26 37 00 62 27 74 46 02 61 59 81
87 59 38 18 30 95 38 36 78 23 20 19 65 48 50
45 73 80 02 61 31 10 06 72 39 02 00 47 06 98
06 86 88 77 86 59 57 66 13 82 33 97 21 31 61
60 84 18 68 48 85 00 00 48 35 48 57 63 38 84

03
32
93
96
05

53
52
36
43
26

72
11
65
14
63

06
87
10
11
57

78
38
71
22
86

28
49
83
74
48

14
01
93
17
51

Steps in random sampling...

1. Identify and define the population.
2. Determine the desired sample size.
3. List all members of the population.
4. Assign all individuals on the list a
consecutive number from zero to the
required number. Each individual
must have the same number of digits
as each other individual.

5. Select an arbitrary number in the table

of random numbers.
6. For the selected number, look only at
the number of digits assigned to each
population member.

7. If the number corresponds to the

number assigned to any of the
individuals in the population, then
that individual is included in the
sample.
8. Go
to the next number in the column
and repeat step #7 until the desired
number of individuals has been
selected for the sample.

How to use random number table to select a random sample

Step 2: Select any starting point in the Random Number Table and find the first number that
corresponds to a number on the list of your population. In the example below, # 08 has been
chosen as the starting point and the first student chosen is Carol Chan.
Starting point:
move right to the end
of the row, then down
to the next row row;
move left to the end,
then down to the next
row, and so on.

10 09 73 25 33 76
37 54 20 48 05 64
08 42 26 89 53 19
90 01 90 25 29 09
12 80 79 99 70 80
66 06 57 47 17 34
31 06 01 08 05 45
Step 3: Move to the next number, 42 and select the person corresponding to that number into
the sample. #87 Tan Teck Wah
Step 4: Continue to the next number that qualifies and select that person into the sample.
# 26 -- Jerry Lewis, followed by #89, #53 and #19
Step 5: After you have selected the student # 19, go to the next line and choose #90. Continue
in the same manner until the full sample is selected. If you encounter a number selected
earlier (e.g., 90, 06 in this example) simply skip over it and choose the next number.

advantages
advantages
easy to conduct
strategy requires minimum knowledge
of the population to be sampled

disadvantages
disadvantages
need names of all population members
may over- represent or under- estimate
sample members
there is difficulty in reaching all selected
in the sample

2.

Stratified sampling I
A three-stage process:

Step

1- Divide the population into homogeneous, mutually

exclusive and collectively exhaustive subgroups or strata
using some stratification variable;
Step 2- Select an independent simple random sample from
each stratum.
Step 3- Form the final sample by consolidating all sample
elements chosen in step 2.

May yield smaller standard errors of estimators than does the simple
random sampling. Thus precision can be gained with smaller sample
sizes.

advantages
advantages
more precise sample
can be used for both proportions and
stratification sampling
sample represents the desired strata

disadvantages
disadvantages
need names of all population members
there is difficulty in reaching all selected
in the sample
researcher must have names of all
populations

3. Cluster sampling:
sampling the process of
randomly selecting intact groups, not
individuals, within the defined
population sharing similar
characteristics

Steps in cluster sampling...

1. Identify and define the population.
2. Determine the desired sample size.
3. Identify and define a logical cluster.
4. List all clusters (or obtain a list) that
make up the population of clusters.
5. Estimate the average number of
population members per cluster.

6. Determine the number of clusters

needed by dividing the sample size by
the estimated size of a cluster.
7. Randomly select the needed number
of clusters by using a table of random
numbers.
8. Include in your study all population
members in each selected cluster.

advantages
advantages
efficient
researcher doesnt need names of all
population members
reduces travel to site
useful for educational research

disadvantages
disadvantages
fewer sampling points make it less like
that the sample is representative

4. Systematic sampling:
sampling the process of
selecting individuals within the
defined population from a list by
taking every Kth name.

Steps in systematic sampling...

1. Identify and define the population.
2. Determine the desired sample size.
3. Obtain a list of the population.
4. Determine what K is equal to by
dividing the size of the population by
the desired sample size.
kth =5000/500=100

5. Start at some random place in the

population list. Close you eyes and
point your finger to a name.
6. Starting at that point, take every Kth
name on the list until the desired
sample size is reached.
7. If the end of the list is reached before
the desired sample is reached, go
back to the top of the list.

advantages
advantages
sample selection is simple

disadvantages
disadvantages
all members of the population do not
have an equal chance of being selected
the Kth person may be related to a
periodical order in the population list,
producing unrepresentativeness in the
sample

Multistage sampling
Multistage

sampling is a complex form of

cluster sampling in which two or more levels
of units are embedded one in the other.
The first stage - constructing the clusters
In the second stage- a sample of primary
units is randomly selected from each cluster
In following stages, in each of those selected
clusters, additional samples of units are
selected, and so on.

Multistage sampling is used frequently

when a complete list of all members of
the population does not exist and is
inappropriate.
Moreover, by avoiding the use of all
sample units in all selected clusters,
multistage sampling avoids the large,
and perhaps unnecessary, costs
associated traditional cluster sampling.

 Matched

random sampling
A method of assigning participants to
groups in which pairs of participants are
first matched on some characteristic and
then individually assigned randomly to
groups
Purposes;,
1. clearly paired, or matched explicitly by the
researcher. For example, IQ measurements
or pairs of identical twins.
2. repeated measures. Can be
done( effectiveness of therapy

 Panel

sampling is the method of first

selecting a group of participants through a
random sampling method and then asking
that group for the same information again
several times over a period of time.
Therefore, each participant is given the
same survey or interview at two or more
time points; each period of data collection is
called a "wave".
Purpose; large scale or nation-wide studies
in chronic illness persons; job stress and
weekly food expenditures.

Non-random sampling methods...

1. Convenience sampling
2. Purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Snow ball sampling

1. Convenience sampling:
sampling the process
of including whoever happens to be
available at the time
called accidental or haphazard
sampling

Drawn at the convenience of the researcher. Common in

exploratory research. Does not lead to any conclusion.

Convenient sampling

Consvenient sampling

disadvantages
disadvantages
difficulty in determining how much of
the effect (dependent variable) results
from the cause (independent variable)

2. Purposive sampling:
sampling the process
whereby the researcher selects a
sample based on experience or
knowledge of the group to be
sampledjudgment sampling
called

disadvantages
disadvantages
potential for inaccuracy in the
researchers criteria and resulting
sample selections

3. Quota sampling:
sampling the process whereby
a researcher gathers data from
individuals possessing identified
characteristics and quotas

disadvantages
disadvantages
people who are less accessible (more
difficult to contact, more reluctant to
participate) are under-represented

Snow ball sampling

Approaches to qualitative sampling...

qualitative research is characterized
by in-depth inquiry, immersion in a
setting, emphasis on context, concern
with participants perspectives, and
description of a single setting, not
generalization to many settings

because samples need to be small

and many potential participants are
unwilling to undergo the demands of
participation, most qualitative
research samples are purposive

representativeness is secondary to
the quality of the participants ability
to provide the desired information
about self and setting

1. Intensity sampling:
sampling selecting
participants who permit study of
different levels of the research topic
2. Homogeneous sampling:
sampling selecting
participants who are very similar in
experience, perspective, or outlook

3. Criterion sampling:
sampling selecting all cases
that meet some pre-defined
characteristic
4. Snowball sampling:
sampling selecting a few
individuals who can identify other
individuals who can identify still other
individuals who might be good
participants for a study

5. Random purposive sampling:

sampling with a
small sample, selecting by random
means participants who were
purposively selected and are too
numerous to include all in the study

 Extreme

and deviant case sampling ;This involves

learning from highly unusual manifestations of the
phenomenon of interest, such as outstanding
successes, notable failures, top of the class,
dropouts, exotic events, crises

Maximum

variation sampling ;This involves purposefully

picking a wide range of variation on dimentions of interest..
Like in the example of interviewing Cornell students, you
may want to get students of different nationalities,
professional backgrounds, cultures, work experience and the
like.

 Typical

case sampling It involves

taking a sample of what one would
call typical, normal or average for a
particular phenomenon,
Stratified purposeful sampling This
illustrates characteristics of particular
subgroups of interest and facilitates
comparisons between the different groups.

 Critical

case sampling This permits logical

generalization and maximum application of
information to other cases like "If it is true
for this one case, it is likely to be true of all
other cases. if it happened to so and so then
it can happen to anybody. Or if so and so
passed that exam, then anybody can pass.

 Theory

based or operational construct

sampling. Finding manifestations of a
theoretical construct of interest so as to
elaborate and examine the construct.

 Opportunistic

Sampling This involves

following new leads during field work,
taking advantage of the unexpected
flexibility

Mistakes to be conscious of...

1. Sampling error
2. Sampling bias
which threaten to render a studys
findings invalid

Sampling error
error
the chance and random variation in
variables that occurs when any sample
is selected from the population
sampling error is to be expected

1. Sampling

bias: When the true selection

probabilities differ from those assumed in
calculating the results.

to avoid sampling error, a census of

the entire population must be taken
to control for sampling error,
researchers use various sampling
methods

Sampling bias
bias
nonrandom differences, generally the
fault of the researcher, which cause the
sample is over-represent individuals or
groups within the population and
which lead to invalid findings
sources of sampling bias include the
use of volunteers and available groups

Non sampling error

(measurement error
Causes; by data collection and processing.
They include:
1. Overcoverage: Inclusion of data from outside
of the population.
2. Undercoverage: Sampling frame does not
include elements in the population.
3. Measurement error: E.g. when respondents
misunderstand a question, or find it difficult
to answer.
4. Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.

Sampling vs non-sampling errors

Sampling Error [SE]

Non-sampling Error [NSE]

Very small sample Size

Larger sample size
Still larger sample
Complete census

How to avoid?
After

sampling, a review should be held of

the exact process followed in sampling,
rather than that intended, in order to study
any effects that any divergences might
have on subsequent analysis.
improving survey design, offering
incentives, and conducting follow-up
studies which make a repeated attempt to
contact the unresponsive and to
characterize their similarities and
differences with the rest of the frame.

 properly

designed surveys,
Web-based surveys

Mini-Quiz
True

or false

there is no significant difference

between convenience sampling and
purposive sampling

false

 True

or false

both quantitative and qualitative researchers

who use samples must provide detailed
information about the purposive research
participants and how they were chosen

true

 True

or false

the size of the sample influences both the

representativeness of the sample itself
and the statistical analysis of study data

true

 True

or false

sampling error reflects sloppy

research

false

 True

or false

a good researcher can avoid

sampling bias

true

 True

or false

the important difference between convenience

sampling and purposive sampling is that, in
the latter, clear criteria guide selection of the
sample

true

 True

or false

a good sample is one that is

representative of the population
from which it was selected

true

 True

or false

a simple stratified random sample guarantees

that each subgroup is represented in the same
proportion that it exists in the population

false

 True

or false

a table of random numbers selects

the sample through a purely random,
or chance, basis

true

 True

or false

purposive sampling does not require

the researcher to describe in detail
the methods used to select a sample

false

 True

or false

it is possible to defend purposive samples

because the researcher uses clear criteria
(e.g., experience and prior knowledge) to
identify criteria for selecting the sample

true

 True

or false

qualitative research uses sampling

strategies that produce samples which
are predominantly small and nonrandom

true

 True

or false

cluster sampling oftentimes is the only

feasible method of selecting a sample because
the population is very large or spread out over
a wide geographic area

true

 Fill

in the blank

a group which differs in the

characteristics of is members

heterogeneous

 Fill

in the blank

the process of cluster sampling that

is completed in stages, involving the
selection of clusters within clusters

multistage

 Fill

in the blank

the mental process by which

findings from a smaller group are
generalized to a larger group

inference

 Fill

in the blank

the characteristics or variables of the sample

demographics

 Fill

in the blank

a group that shares similar

characteristics

homogeneous

 Fill

in the blank

the group to which research findings

are generalizable

population

 Fill

in the blank

any location within which a researcher

finds an intact group of similar
characteristics (i.e., population members)

cluster

 Fill

in the blank

the extent to which the results of

one study can be applied to other
populations or situations

generalizability

 Which

type of sample

identified subgroups in the population

are represented in the same proportion
that they exist in the population

stratified

 Which

type of sample

selecting a few individuals who can identify other

individuals who can identify still other individuals
who might be good participants for a study

snowball

 Which

type of sample
selecting participants who permit
study of different levels of the
research topic

intensity

 Which

type of sample
selects intact groups, not individuals
having similar characteristics

cluster

 Which

type of sample

selecting by random means participants who are

selected upon defined criteria and not who are too
numerous to include all participants in the study

random purposive

 Which

type of sample

all individuals in the defined population

have an equal and independent chance
of being selected for the sample

random

 Which

type of sample
a sampling process in which
individuals are selected from a
list by taking every Kth name

systematic

 Which

type of sample
selecting all cases that meet some
specific characteristic

criterion

This session has focused on...

sampling a population
which describes the procedures
researchers use to select individuals
to participate in a study

158