Unit 1
Module 1 Fundamentals in Chemistry
Topic 1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Acceptance of Scientific
Theories
For a theory to be accepted it must generally
be:
Substantiated prior work and evidence
Explanatory must explain why a
phenomenon occurs
Predictive must be able to suggest future
results
Testable must produce consistent results
when tested
What are some theories that have been
proven incorrect?
What do the following have in common?
Discovery of the Atom
History of Atomic Theory
Daltons Theory - was based on the premise that the
atoms of different elements could be distinguished by
differences in their weights. The theory proposed a
number of basic ideas:
All matter is composed of atoms
An atom is indivisible
Atoms cannot be made or destroyed
All atoms of the same element are identical
Atoms of different elements have different masses
Chemical reactions occur when atoms are rearranged
Compounds are formed from atoms
J.J Thomson discovery of the electron
J.J. Thomson realized that he could deflect the cathode
rays in an electric field produced by a pair of metal plates.
One of the plates was negatively charged and repelled
the cathode rays, while the other was positively charged
and attracted them.
The cathode rays moved towards the positively charged
plate so the rays must be negatively charged.
J.J Thomson Plum pudding model
Ernest Rutherford discovery of the
nucleus
Alpha particles coming from a radioactive source
were directed to a gold foil. The foil was then
surrounded by a wall of zinc sulfide that exhibited
scintillations (tiny flashes) when hit by the alpha
particles.
It was expected that many of the scintillations would
have been seen behind the gold foil but there were
some that seemingly bounced back.
What could this have meant?
Ernest Rutherfords Experiment
Ernest Rutherford model
The positive charge
is concentrated in
the centre of the
atom and not
scattered
throughout like J.J
Thomson predicted
Atomic Structure
Wait..thats a pic of peas and a stadium..I think Ms. Charles is crazy..
James Chadwick - discovery of the neutron
Beryllium, when bombarded by alpha particles, emitted
a very energetic stream of radiation.
This stream was originally thought to be gamma
radiation.
However, further investigations into the properties of the
radiation revealed contradictory results. Like gamma
rays, these rays were extremely penetrating and since
they were not deflected upon passing through a
magnetic field, neutral.
James Chadwicks Experiment
James Chadwicks atomic model
Niels Bohr discovery of orbitals
Bohr looked at information from the hydrogen emission
experiments and used it to postulate that electrons
exist in orbitals around the nucleus. His theory
accounted for the series of lines observed in the
spectrum of light emitted by atomic hydrogen
Weakness of the Bohr model:
The Bohr model gives poor predictions for larger
atoms.
Niels Bohr model
Structure of the Atom
Sub-atomic
Particle
Electron
Relative Mass Relative
1/1836
charge
-1
Location
Outside of the
nucleus
Neutron
In the nucleus
Proton
+1
In the nucleus
Behavior of particles in an electric
field?
Behavior of particles in a magnetic
field?
Key definitions
Mass Number?
Atomic Number?
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the following atoms:
Key definitions
Isotope?
Isotopes
Recap Questions (Study Guide pg
12)
State the 4 main tenets of Daltons atomic
theory and explain any modifications to his
theory in light of new discoveries.
Explain the direction and degree of
deflection of protons, neutrons and
electrons in an electric field.
What is the rationale for using the relative
masses and relative charges of sub-atomic
particles rather than their absolute masses
and charges?
How many protons, electrons and neutrons
are in the following:
3-
Relative atomic/isotopic mass?
The actual masses of atoms in grams are very small
numbers, which are not convenient to deal. Hence the
mass of a carbon-12 atom is used as a standard with a
mass of 12 units and all masses are then compared to the
carbon-12 atom. This gives rise to the term relative atomic
mass (Ar).
Ar is the weighted average mass of a naturally occurring
atom of an element on a scale where an atom of carbon12 has mass of exactly 12 units.
Relative isotopic mass?
Calculating Relative Atomic Masses
Mass spectrometer? Oooh big with plenty buttons :D
General equation for calculating relative atomic mass
using relative abundance data
R.A.M = (% relative abundance of isotope A/total %
relative abundance x mass of isotope A) + (% relative
abundance of isotope B/total %relative abundance x
mass of isotope B)
Example
Total % Relative abundance = 100% + 33% = 133%
Relative Abundance of Cl-35 = 100%
Mass of Cl-35 = 35
Relative Abundance of Cl-37 = 33%
Mass of Cl-37 = 37
R.A.M = 100% * 35 + 33% * 37 = 35.5
133%
133%
Calculate the Relative Atomic Mass of Boron given the
information above
Relative Abundances are 23% and 100%
How many isotopes of boron are there?
Calculate the Relative Atomic Mass of Zirconium given
the information above
The relative abundances are 51.5, 11.2, 17.1, 17.4, and
2.8 respectively
How many isotopes of zirconium are there?
Radioactivity
Fun Facts about Radiation
Radiation and radioactive material is a part of nature. So everything
that's living has some amount of radiation coming from it a very
small amount. Plus there's radiation in the ground and the air.
Bananas have a lot of potassium. And a small amount of potassium
naturally is called potassium 40, which is radioactive.
Granite countertops, in the kitchen. Granite, and many other kinds of
rock, contain uranium.
Brazil nuts, which contain radium that the trees absorb from the
ground. Many other plants have naturally occurring radiation from
metals in the soil.
Travel and going through airport security.
Note, however that exposure to these types of radiation is not harmful as
the doses received are quite small.
Ionizing radiation is the one that we avoid at all costs.
Radioactivity
What is radioactivity?
Three types of particles/rays maybe emitted during
this process:
Alpha () particles
Beta () particles
Gamma () rays
Alpha particles
Ernest Rutherford, an English scientist, discovered alpha
particles in 1899 while working with uranium.
These consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, similar to the
contents of the Helium nucleus and as such are usually
written as Helium. They are positively charged.
Consider the eqn below:
Why does the atomic number decrease after the decay?
Alpha particles can be stopped by paper.
Write Eqns for the Rxns
Write the mass number
and atomic number for the
element produced from the
rxn
Dont be concerned with
the symbol/name for the
element produced from the
reaction
Answers
Beta particles electrons
A neutron breaks down to form a proton (which stays
in the nucleus), an electron and an antineutrino
What happens to the atomic number? Why?
What happens to the mass number? Why?
Beta particles can be stopped by 6mm aluminium foil
Write Eqns for the Rxns
Write the mass number and
atomic number for the element
produced from the rxn
Dont be concerned with the
symbol/name for the element
produced from the reaction
Answers
Gamma rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more
photons (packets of electromagnetic radiation) of discrete,
high frequency, energies.
The emission of gamma rays often does not alter the number
of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect
of moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state
(unstable to stable).
Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha
decay, and electron capture.
Can be stopped by a thick lead sheet
Penetration of radiation particles
Uses of radioiostopes