Sampling

Prof. Bhakta Bandhu Dash

Asian School of Business
Management
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Components of Empirical
Research
Problem statement, research questions,

purposes, benefits
Theory, assumptions, background literature
Variables and hypotheses
Operational definitions and measurement
Research design and methodology
Instrumentation, sampling
Data analysis
Conclusions, interpretations,
recommendations
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Sampling
A

sample is a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about
that population (Field, 2005)

Why sample?
Resources (time, money) and workload
Gives results with known accuracy that

can be calculated mathematically

The sampling frame is the list from which

the potential respondents are drawn.

Sampling
What is your population of interest?
To whom do you want to generalize

your results?
All doctors
School children
Indians
Women aged 15-45 years
Other
Can you sample the entire population?

Sampling
3 factors that influence sample representative-

ness
Sampling procedure
Sample size
Participation (response)

When might you sample the entire population?

When your population is very small
When you have extensive resources
When you dont expect a very high

response

Sampling Breakdown

Sampling.
STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

Stages in
the
Selection
of a
Sample

Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or non-probability
sampling method will be chosen
Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units
Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork

Types of Samples
Probability (Random) Samples
Simple random sample
Systematic random sample
Stratified random sample
Multistage sample
Multiphase sample
Cluster sample

Non-Probability Samples
Convenience sample
Purposive sample
Quota

Process
The sampling process comprises several

stages:
Defining the population of concern
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items
or events possible to measure
Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
Determining the sample size
Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Reviewing the sampling process
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Target Population
Relevant Population
Operationally Define
Comic Book Reader?

Sampling Frame
A list of elements from which the sample

may be drawn
Working Population
Mailing Lists - Data Base Marketers
Sampling Frame Error

Sampling Units
Group selected for the sample
Primary Sampling Units (PSU)
Secondary Sampling Units
Tertiary Sampling Units

Random Sampling Error

The difference between the sample

results and the result of a census

conducted using identical procedures
Statistical fluctuation due to chance

variations

Systematic Errors
Non-sampling errors
Unrepresentative sample results
Not due to chance
Due to study design or imperfections

in execution

Errors Associated with

Sampling
Sampling Frame Error
Random Sampling Error
Non-response Error

Two Major Categories of

Sampling
Probability Sampling
Known, nonzero probability for

every element
Non-probability Sampling
Probability of selecting any

particular member is unknown

Non Probability Sampling

Any

sampling method where some elements of

population have no chance of selection (these are
sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'under
covered'), or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined. It involves the selection of
elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for
selection. Hence, because the selection of elements
is nonrandom, non-probability sampling not allows
the estimation of sampling errors..

Example: We visit every household in a given street,

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and interview the first person to answer the door. In

any household with more than one occupant, this is a
non-probability sample, because some people are
more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed
person who spends most of their time at home is
more likely to answer than an employed housemate
who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and
it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

Non-probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgment
Quota
Snowball

Convenience Sampling
Also
called haphazard or accidental
sampling
The sampling procedure of obtaining the
people or units that are most conveniently
available
Judgment Sampling
Also called purposive sampling
An experienced individual selects the
sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required
of the sample member

Quota Sampling
Ensures
that the various subgroups in a
population are represented on pertinent sample
characteristics
To the exact extent that the investigators desire
It should not be confused with stratified
sampling.
Snowball Sampling
A variety of procedures
Initial respondents are selected by probability
methods
Additional respondents are obtained from
information provided by the initial respondents

Probability Sampling
A probability sampling scheme is one in which

every unit in the population has a chance (greater

than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this
probability can be accurately determined.
When every element in the population does have

the same probability of selection, this is known as

an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design.
Such designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting'
because all sampled units are given the same
weight.

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Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sample
Systematic Sample
Stratified Sample
Cluster Sample
Multistage Area Sample

Simple Random Sampling

A sampling procedure that ensures that each
element in the population will have an equal
chance of being included in the sample
Applicable
when
population
is
small,
homogeneous & readily available
All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame thus
has an equal probability of selection.
It provides for greatest number of possible
samples. This is done by assigning a number
to each unit in the sampling frame.
A table of random number or lottery system is
used to determine which units are to be
selected.

Disadvantages
Estimates are easy to calculate.
Simple random sampling is always an
EPS design, but not all EPS designs are
simple random sampling.
Disadvantages
If sampling frame large, this method
impracticable.
Minority
subgroups of interest in
population may not be present in
sample in sufficient numbers for study.
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Systematic Sampling
A simple process
Every nth name from the list will be drawn
Stratified Sampling
Probability sample
Subsamples are drawn within different strata
Each stratum is more or less equal on some
characteristic
Do not confuse with quota sample

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Systematic Sampling
Systematic Sampling relies on arranging the

target population according to some ordering

scheme and then selecting elements at
regular intervals through that ordered list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start
and then proceeds with the selection of every
kth element from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size).
It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the
kth element in the list.
A simple example would be to select every
10th name from the telephone directory (an
'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').
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Systematic Sampling
Advantages:
Sample easy to select
Suitable sampling frame can be identified
easily
Sample evenly spread over entire reference
population
Disadvantages:
Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in
population coincides with that of selection.
Difficult to assess precision of estimate from
one survey.
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Stratified Sampling
Where population embraces a number of distinct
categories, the frame can be organized into
separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled
as an independent sub-population, out of which
individual elements can be randomly selected.
Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being
selected.
Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures
proportionate representation in the sample.
Adequate representation of minority subgroups of
interest can be ensured by stratification & varying
sampling fraction between strata as required.
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Stratified Sampling
Advantages:

Finally, since each stratum is treated as an

independent population, different sampling

approaches can be applied to different strata.

Disadvantages:

First, sampling frame of entire population has

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to be prepared separately for each stratum

Second, when examining multiple criteria,
stratifying variables may be related to some,
but not to others, further complicating the
design, and potentially reducing the utility of
the strata.
Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a
large number of strata, or those with a
specified minimum sample size per group),
stratified sampling can potentially require a
larger sample than would other methods

Cluster Sampling
The purpose of cluster sampling is to

sample economically while retaining the

characteristics of a probability sample.

The primary sampling unit is no longer

the individual element in the population

The primary sampling unit is a larger

cluster of elements located in proximity

to one another

Examples of Clusters
Population Element

U.S. adult population

Possible Clusters in the Un

States
Counties
Metropolitan Statistical

Area
Census tracts
Blocks
Households

Examples of Clusters
Population Element
College seniors
Manufacturing firms

Possible Clusters in the Un

Colleges
Counties
Metropolitan Statistical Areas
Localities
Plants

Examples of Clusters
Population Element

Possible Clusters in the Un

Airline travelers

Airports
Planes

Sports fans

Football stadiums
Basketball arenas
Baseball parks

Cluster Sampling.
Advantages :
Cuts down on the cost of preparing a
sampling frame.
This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
Disadvantages:
Sampling error is higher for a simple
random sample of same size.

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Cluster Sampling.
Two types of cluster sampling methods.
One-stage sampling.
All of the elements within selected clusters
are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling.
A subset of elements within selected clusters
are randomly selected for inclusion in the
sample.
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What is the
Appropriate Sample Design?
Degree of Accuracy
Resources
Time
Advanced Knowledge of the

Population
National versus Local
Need for Statistical Analysis

Difference Between Strata and

Clusters
Although strata and clusters are both non-

overlapping subsets of the population, they

differ in several ways.
All strata are represented in the sample; but
only a subset of clusters are in the sample.
With stratified sampling, the best survey
results occur when elements within strata are
internally homogeneous. However, with cluster
sampling, the best results occur when
elements within clusters are internally
heterogeneous.

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MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of

units are embedded one in the other.

First stage, random number of districts chosen in all

states.

Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are

surveyed.

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MULTISTAGE SAMPLING..
This technique, is essentially the process of taking random

samples of preceding random samples.

Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably
solves more of the problems inherent to random sampling.
An effective strategy because it banks on multiple
randomizations. As such, extremely useful.
Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list
of all members of the population not exists and is
inappropriate.
Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all
selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large,
and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with traditional
cluster sampling.

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MULTI PHASE SAMPLING

Part of the information collected from whole sample & part from

subsample.

In Tb survey MT in all cases Phase I

X Ray chest in MT +ve cases Phase II
Sputum examination in X Ray +ve cases - Phase III
Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more

purposeful

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MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING

A method of assigning participants to groups in which
pairs of participants are first matched on some
characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to
groups.
The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be
briefed with the following contexts,
Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or
are matched explicitly by the researcher. For example,
IQ measurements or pairs of identical twins.
Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is
measured twice on each subject, under different
circumstances. Commonly called repeated measures.
Examples include the times of a group of athletes for
1500m before and after a week of special training; the
milk yields of cows before and after being fed a
particular diet.
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QUOTA SAMPLING
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive

sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.

Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each
segment based on a specified proportion.
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200
females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of
non-probability sampling.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is nonrandom.
For example interviewers might be tempted to interview
those who look most helpful. The problem is that these
samples may be biased because not everyone gets a
chance of selection. This random element is its greatest
weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter
43 of controversy for many years

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental

or haphazard sampling.
A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand.
That is, readily available and convenient.
The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people
that he/she could interview would be limited to those given there
at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be
conducted at different times of day and several times per week.
This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique,
where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects
into the sample.
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CONVENIENCE SAMPLING.

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Use results that are easy to get

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Judgmental sampling or Purposive

sampling
- The researcher chooses the sample based on

who they think would be appropriate for the

study. This is used primarily when there is a
limited number of people that have expertise
in the area being researched

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PANEL SAMPLING
Method of first selecting a group of participants through a
random sampling method and then asking that group for the same
information again several times over a period of time.
Therefore, each participant is given same survey or interview at
two or more time points; each period of data collection called a
"wave".
This sampling methodology often chosen for large scale or nationwide studies in order to gauge changes in the population with
regard to any number of variables from chronic illness to job
stress to weekly food expenditures.
Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about
within-person health changes due to age or help explain changes in
continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction.
There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel
sample data, including growth curves.

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