Chapter 1

Infinite Sequences
and Series
School of Science
Mae Fah Luang University
Content
 Sequences
 Infinite Series
 The Integral Test
 Comparison Tests
 The Ratio and Root Tests
 Alternating Series
 Power Series
 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Sequences & Series 2

1.1 Sequences
Let’s look some patterns

What will the next shape be?

Try it: 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,……..
What will the next number be?
Try it: 2, 4, 8, 16, ……..
What’s the next number?
Sequences & Series 3
These are all sequences. Here’s a casual
definition: A sequence is a list of numbers
(or other things) that changes according to
some sort of pattern.
We usually assign each spot with a special
symbol:
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 ,..., an ,...
This is called
Each of these is
the nth term or
called a “term”
general term
Sequences & Series 4
So, for the sequence of squares that we
already saw
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …
a1= 1, a2= 4, a3= 9, a4=16
What would the 10th term in this sequence
be?

Sequences & Series 5

Definition
 An infinite sequence of numbers is a function
whose domain is the set of positive integers.
 Notation : { an } with
{ an } = { a1 , a2 , a3 ,K , an , an +1,K }
 Alternating notation : f(n) and
f = {( n, f ( n)) | n = 1, 2,3,...}
 We also sometimes write
{ an } n=1
∞

Sequences & Series 6

Example 1
{ an } = { } {
n = 1, 2, 3, 4,K }

Diverges

Sequences & Series 7

  1  1 1 1 1 
{ an } =   =  , , , ,K 
 n  1 2 3 4 

Converges to 0

Sequences & Series 8

  n +1 1  1 1 1 1 
{ an } = (−1)  =  , − , , − ,K 
 n  1 2 3 4 

Converges to 0

Sequences & Series 9

 { an } = {(−1) } = { −1,1, −1,1, −1,...}
n

Diverges

Sequences & Series 10

  1 n   1 5 7 17 
{ an } = 1 + ( − )  =  , , , ,...
 2   2 4 8 16 

Converges to 1

Sequences & Series 11

Example 2
In each part, find the general term of the sequence.
1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
a) , , , ,... b) , , , ,...
2 3 4 5 2 4 8 16
1 2 3 4
c) , − , , − ,... d) 1,3,5, 7,...
2 3 4 5

Sequences & Series 12

Converges, Diverges, Limit

 1
Consider the sequence   
n
1 1 1 1 1  2 
, , , , , ...
2 4 8 16 32
We see that as n becomes large the
numbers converges to 0, as indicated in
the following definition.

Sequences & Series 13

Definition
The sequence {an} converges to the number L if to
every positive number ε there corresponds an integer
N such that for all n,
n>N ⇒ |an – L| < ε
If no such number L exists, we say that {an} diverges.
lim an = L
If {an} converges to L, we write n→∞ , or simply
an → L, and call L the limit of the sequence.

Sequences & Series 14

 an
L+ε
L
L-ε

n
…N

Sequences & Series 15

Example 3
Show that
1
(a) lim = 0
n→∞ n
(b) lim k = k (any constant k )
n→∞

Sequences & Series 16

Theorem 1
Let lim an = A and lim bn = B , and k is a constant.
n→∞ n →∞

1. lim(an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B

n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

2. lim(an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B

n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

3. lim kan = k lim an = kA

n →∞ n →∞

4. lim(anbn ) = lim an lim bn = AB

n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

an lim an A
5. lim = n→∞ = , B ≠ 0
n →∞ b lim bn B
n
n →∞

Sequences & Series 17

Example 4
 1 1
(a) lim  −  = −1 ⋅ lim = −1 ⋅ 0 = 0
n→∞  n  n→∞ n

 n −1   1 1
(b) lim   = lim 1 −  = lim 1 − lim = 1 − 0 = 1
n→∞  n  n→∞  n  n→∞ n→∞ n
5
(c) lim 2 =
n→∞ n

4 − 7 n6
(d) lim 6 =
n→∞ n + 3

Sequences & Series 18

Theorem 2 The Sandwich Theorem
for Sequences
Let {an }, {bn }, and {cn } be sequences of real numbers.
If an ≤ bn ≤ cn holds for all n beyond some index N ,
and if lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L also.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Sequences & Series 19

Example 5
1
Since → 0, we know that
n
cos n 1 cos n 1
(a) →0 because − ≤ ≤
n n n n
1 1 1
(b) n → 0 because 0 ≤ n ≤
2 2 n
n 1 1 n 1 1
(c) ( − 1) → 0 because − ≤ ( − 1) ≤
n n n n

Sequences & Series 20

Theorem 3
1. If lim an = 0, then lim an = 0.
n →∞ n →∞

2. If b n ≤ cn and lim cn = 0, then lim bn = 0

n →∞ n →∞

Sequences & Series 21

Theorem 4 The Continuous Function
Theorem for Sequences
Let {an} be a sequence of real numbers. If an → L
and if f is a function that is continuous at L and
defined at all an, then f(an) → f(L).

Theorem 5 Using L’Hôpital’s Rule

Suppose that f(x) is a function defined for all x ≥ n0
and that {an} is a sequence of real numbers such that
an = f(n) for n ≥ n0. Then
lim f ( x ) = L ⇒ lim an = L.
x →∞ n→∞

Sequences & Series 22

Example 6
ln n
Show that nlim =0
→∞ n

Sequences & Series 23

Example 7 Using L’Hopital’s Rule
Find
n n
2  n +1
(a) lim (b) lim  
n→∞ 5n n →∞  n − 1 

Sequences & Series 24

Example 8
Determine the convergence or divergence of the
sequence. If the sequence converges, find its limit.
 n  1 − ( −1)n  ( −1)n 
(a)   (b)   (c)  
 2n + 1   2   n 
 n!   n 1 
(d)  n  (e) (− 1) n 
n   2 

Sequences & Series 25

Definition Monotonic Sequences
A sequence{ an } is monotonic if its terms are
increasing (nondecreasing)
an ≤ an +1 , ∀n = 1, 2,3,...
or if its terms are decreasing
an ≥ an +1 , ∀n = 1, 2,3,...
Strictly increasing : an < an +1 , ∀n = 1, 2,3,...
Strictly decreasing : an > an +1 , ∀n = 1, 2,3,...

Sequences & Series 26

 Example 9

(a) {2n} is increasing because

an+1 =2(n+1)=2n+2 > 2n = an , for all n = 1, 2, 3,..
1 
(b)   is decreasing because
n

 (−1) n 
(c)   is not monotonic.
 n 

Sequences & Series 27

Remark
1. Consider an+1 – an ,
if an+1 – an ≤ 0, then {an} is decreasing,
if an+1 – an ≥ 0, then {an} is increasing.
2. If the sequence {an} which an > 0 for all n,
then
an +1
≤ 1, ∀n
if an , then {an} is decreasing,
an +1
≥ 1, ∀n
if an , then {an} is increasing.
Sequences & Series 28
Example 10
Determine increasing or decreasing of the
sequence.
 n 
a)  
 2n − 1 
 1 
b)  2 − 2 
 n 
2 
n
c)  2 
n 
Sequences & Series 29
Bounded Sequence

Definition
1. A sequence {an} is bounded from above if there
exists a number M such that an ≤ M for all n. The
number M is an upper bound for {an}. If M is an
upper bound for {an} but no number less than M
is an upper bound for {an}, then M is the least
upper bound (l.u.b.) for {an}.

Sequences & Series 30

2. A sequence {an} is bounded from below if there
exists a number N such that an ≥ N for all n. The
number N is a lower bound for {an}. If N is a
lower bound for {an} but no number greater than
N is a lower bound for {an}, then N is the
greatest lower bound (g.l.b.) for {an}.

3. A sequence {an} is bounded if it is bounded from

above and bounded from below.

Sequences & Series 31

Example 11
(a) The sequence {(-1)n} = -1, 1, -1, 1,… has 1 is
l.u.b. and -1 is g.l.b. Thus {(-1)n} is bounded.
(b) The sequence {2n} = 2, 4, 6, 8, … has 2 is
g.l.b. but not upper bound. Thus {2n} is not
bounded.
 (− 1)n  1 1 1 1 1
(c)  = −1, , − , , −, ,... has -1 is g.l.b. and
 n  2 3 4 5 6
1/2 is l.u.b. Thus it is bounded.

Sequences & Series 32

Note
 If a sequence {an} is bounded and monotonic, then it
converges.
 If {an} is converge, then it bounded.
 If an increasing sequence converges, it converges to its
l.u.b.
 If a decreasing sequence converges, it converges to its
g.l.b.
 The bounded sequence not necessary is converges. For
example {(-1)n} bounded but diverges.

Sequences & Series 33

 1.2 Infinite Series

Step 1: I cut the donut into 4 (equal) pieces and give each of
the three volunteers a piece. Then I go to the board and
record
student A student B student C amount left

Step1: 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4

Sequences & Series 34
Step2: Then I cut the remaining 1/4 donut into 4 equal
pieces and give each student one piece. Now the recording
is
student A student B student C amount left
Step1: 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
Step2: 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
so each student has a total of 1/4 + 1/16 = 5/16.
Sequences & Series 35
Step 3: Then I cut the remaining 1/16 donut into 4 equal
pieces and give each student one piece. With this action
on the board I add the line
student A student B student C amount left
Step 3: 1/64 1/64 1/64 1/64
so each student has 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 = 21/64 .
Sequences & Series 36
After one or two more steps the pieces are getting rather
small so I simply eat the last small piece and suggest that
we analyze what happens if I had continued the process

The class is very willing to agree that the "amount left" is

quickly approaching zero, so in the "limiting case," the
whole donut is distributed equally among the three
students and each student gets 1/3 of the donut:

Sequences & Series 37

 The "pieces" 1/4, 1/16, 1/64, ... are called the
"terms" of the series
 The "amounts after each step", 1/4, 5/16, 21/64,
.. are called the "partial sums” of the series.
 And since the total amount each student is getting
in our first donut sharing example was
approaching 1/3, we say that "the sum of the
series" is 1/3 (or "the limit of the partial sums"
is 1/3).

Sequences & Series 38

Definition
Given a sequence of numbers {an}, an expression of the
form
a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an + …
is an infinite series. The number an is the nth term of the
series. The sequence {Sn} defined by
S1 = a1
S2 = a1 + a2
M
∞
Sn = a1 + a2 + L + an = ∑ an
n =1
M
Sequences & Series 39
Definition Convergent and
Divergent Series
Let {Sn } is the sequence of partial sums of the series.
If lim Sn = L, we say that the series converges,
n→∞
and L is called the sum of the series.
If lim Sn diverges, then the series diverges.
n→∞

Sequences & Series 40

Example 1
Determine whether the series converges or diverges.
If it converges , find the sum.
∞
1 1 1 1 1
(a) ∑ n = + + + + ...
n =1 2 2 4 8 16
∞
1 1 
(b) ∑  − 
n =1  n n+1 
∞
(c) ∑ 1
n =1

Sequences & Series 41

The series in Example (b) is a telescoping series.
That is, it is of the form
(b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) +L + (bn − bn + 1 ) +L
The nth partial sum of this series is
S n = b1 − bn +1
If the series converges, its sum is
L = b1 − lim bn +1
n →∞

Sequences & Series 42

Example 2
Find the sums of the series
∞
1
(a) ∑
n =1 n( n + 2)
∞
2
(b) ∑
n =1 4n − 1
2

Sequences & Series 43

Theorem 6 Convergence of
Geometric Series
Geometric series are series of the form
∞
a + ar + ar2 +... + arn +... =∑ arn− 1, a ≠0
n =1
with ratio r diverges if |r| ≥ 1. If |r| < 1, then the
series converges to the sum
∞
a
∑ ar = 1 − r ,
n
r < 1.
n =0

Sequences & Series 44

Example 3
Determine whether the series converges or diverges.
If it converges , find the sum.
∞ n
(−1) 5
(a) ∑ n
n =0 4
∞ n
3
(b) ∑  
n =0  2 
∞
(c) ∑ 32 n51−n
n =1

Sequences & Series 45

Example 4
Express the repeating decimal 5.232323… as the ratio
of two integers

Sequences & Series 46

Example 5 A Bouncing Ball

You drop a ball from a

meters above a flat
surface. Each time the
ball hits the surface
after falling a distance
h, it rebounds a distance
rh, where r is positive
but less than 1. Find the
total distance the ball
travels up and down.

Sequences & Series 47

 Theorem
∞
7
WIf ∑ an converges, then lim an = 0.
n→∞
n =1

WThe nth - term Test for Divergence(The Divergence Test)

∞
∑ an diverges if nlim
→∞
an fails to exist or is different
n =1
∞
from zero.(If lim an ≠ 0, then
n→∞
∑ an diverges.)
n =1

Sequences & Series 48

Example 6 Applying the nth-
term
∞ test
(a) ∑ n diverges because lim n = ∞
2 2
n→∞
n =1
∞
n +1
(b) ∑
n =1 n
∞
(c) ∑ (−1) n+1
n =1
∞
−n
(d) ∑
n =1 2n + 5

Sequences & Series 49

Theorem 8
If ∑an = A and ∑an = B are convergent series, then
1. ∑(an + bn) = ∑an + ∑bn = A + B
2. ∑(an – bn) = ∑an – ∑bn = A – B
3. ∑kan = k∑an = kA (Any number k)

Sequences & Series 50

 Note
 Every nonzero constant multiple of a divergent
series diverges.
 If ∑an converges and ∑bn diverges, then
∑(an + bn) and ∑(an – bn) both diverge.
 Caution
Remember that ∑(an + bn) can converge when ∑an
and ∑bn both diverge. For example, ∑an = 1 + 1 +
1 + … and ∑bn = (-1) + (-1) + (-1) + … diverge,
whereas ∑(an + bn) = 0 + 0 + 0+ … converges to 0.

Sequences & Series 51

Example 7
Find the sums of the following series.
∞ n −1
3 −1
(a) ∑ 6n−1
n =1
∞
4
(b) ∑ n
n =0 2
∞
 1 1 
(c) ∑  + n 
n =1  4n 4 

Sequences & Series 52

1.3 The Integral Test
Theorem 9
Let {an } be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose
that an = f (n), where f is a continuous, positive,
decreasing function of x for all x ≥ N (N a positive integer).
∞
Then the series ∑ an and the improper integral
n= N
∞ b
∫N f ( x) dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx
b→∞ N
both converge or both diverge.

Sequences & Series 53

p-Series and Harmonic
Series
A series of the form
∞
1 1 1 1
∑
n =1 n
p
= p + p + p + ...
1 2 3
is a p-series, where p is a positive constant.
For p = 1, the series
∞
1 1 1 1
∑
n =1 n
= + + + ...
1 2 3

is the harmonic series.

Sequences & Series 54

 Theorem 10 Convergence of p-
Series
The p-series
∞
1 1 1 1
∑
n =1 n
p
= p + p + p + ...
1 2 3
1. Converges if p > 1, and
2. Diverges if 0 < p ≤ 1.
So the harmonic series diverges.

Sequences & Series 55

Example 1
Determine whether these series converges or
diverges.
∞
1
(a) ∑
n =1 n
∞
1
(b) ∑ 2
n =1 n + 1

Sequences & Series 56

1.4 Comparison Tests
We have seen how to determine the convergence of
geometric series, p-series, and a few others. We can
test the convergence of many more series by
comparing their terms to those of a series whose
convergence is known.

Sequences & Series 57

Theorem 11 The Comparison
Test
Let ∑an be a series with no negative terms.
(a) ∑an converges if there is a convergent series ∑cn
with an ≤ cn for all n > N, for some integer N.
(b) ∑an diverges if there is a divergent series of
nonnegative terms ∑dn with an ≥ dn for all n > N,
• If for some integer N.
the “larger” series converges, then the “smaller”
one does too.
• If the “smaller” series diverges, then the “larger”
one does too.
Sequences & Series 58
Example 1
Determine the convergence or divergence of
∞ 5
(a) ∑
n =1 5n − 1
∞ 1
(b) ∑
n =0 n !
∞ 1
(c) ∑ n
n =0 2 + n

Sequences & Series 59

 Theorem 12 Limit Comparison
Test that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ≥ N (N an integer).
Suppose
an
1. If lim = L > 0, then ∑ an and ∑ bn
n→∞ bn

both converge or both diverge.

an
2. If lim
n→∞ bn
= 0 and ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an converge.
an
3. If lim
n→∞ bn
= ∞ and ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ an diverge.

Sequences & Series 60

Example 2
Show that the following general harmonic series
diverges.
∞ 1
∑ an + b , a > 0, b > 0
n =1

Sequences & Series 61

Example 3
Which of the following series converge, and which
diverge?
∞
2n + 1
(a) ∑ 2
n =1 ( n + 1)
∞ 1
(b) ∑ n
n =1 2 − 1
∞ 1 + n ln n
(c) ∑ 2
n=2 n + 5

Sequences & Series 62

Theorem 13
p
If ∑an, an ≥ 0, ∀n ≥ 1 and nlim n an = A, then
→∞

1. ∑an converges if p > 1 and A is finite

number (A ≠ ∞).
2. ∑an diverges if p ≤ 1 and A ≠ 0 (or A = ∞)

Sequences & Series 63

Example 4
Determine the convergence or divergence of
∞
n
(a) ∑ 3
n =1 4n − 2
∞ ln n
(b) ∑ 3/ 2
n =1 n

Sequences & Series 64

1.5 The Ratio and Root Tests
The Ratio Test measures the rate of growth (or
decline) of a series by examining the ratio an+ 1/an.
For a geometric series, this rate is a constant r, and
the series converges if and only if its ratio is less
than 1 in absolute value. The Ratio Test is a
powerful rule extending that result.

Sequences & Series 65

Theorem 14 The Ratio Test
Let ∑an be a series and suppose that
an+1
lim =L
n→∞ a
n

Then
(a) the series converges if L < 1,
(b) the series diverges if L > 1 or L = ∞,
(c) the test is inconclusive if L = 1.

Sequences & Series 66

Example 1
Investigate the convergence of the following series
∞2n + 5
(a) ∑ n
n =0 3
∞ (2n )!
(b) ∑
n =1 n !n!
∞ n
4 n!n!
(c) ∑
n =1 (2n )!

Sequences & Series 67

Theorem 15 The Root Test
Let ∑an be a series and suppose that
lim n an = R
n →∞
Then
(a) the series converges if R < 1.
(b) the series diverges if R > 1 or R = ∞.
(c) the test is inconclusive if R = 1.

Sequences & Series 68

Example 2
Which of the following series converges, and which
diverges?
∞ 2
n
(a) ∑ n
n =1 2
∞e2n
(b) ∑ n
n =0 n
∞ n
 1 
(c) ∑  
n =1  1 + n 

Sequences & Series 69

1.6 Alternating Series, Absolute
and Conditional Convergence
Series which terms alternate between positive and
negative, called alternating series, are of special
importance. Some example are
∞
∑ (−1) n
n = −1 + 2 − 3 + 4 − 5 + ....
n =1

∞
∑ (−1) n +1
n = 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − ....
n =1

Sequences & Series 70

Definition
The alternating series has one of the following two
form:
∞
∑ (−1) n
un = −u1 + u2 − u3 + u4 − L
n =1
∞
∑ (−1) n +1
un = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + L
n =1

Sequences & Series 71

Theorem 16 The Alternating Series
Test
Let u > 0 for all n. The alternating series
n
∞ ∞
∑ (−1) n
un and ∑ (−1) n+1
un
n =1 n =1

converge if the following two conditions are satisfied.

(1) lim un = 0
n→∞
(2) un+1 ≤ un , ∀n

Sequences & Series 72

Remark
If an alternating series violates condition (1) of the
alternating series test, then series must diverge by
The Divergent Test. If the condition (1) is true but
condition (2) is not true, the series maybe converges
or diverges.

Sequences & Series 73

Example 1
Determine the convergence or divergence of
∞ 1
(a) ∑ (−1) n +1
n
(the alternating harmonic series)
n =1
∞ n
(b) ∑ n −1
n =1 ( −2)
∞ n
2
(c) ∑ (−1) n +1
n 2
n =1

Sequences & Series 74

Absolute and Conditional
Convergence
Theorem 17 The Absolute
Convergence Test
If ∑|an| converges, then ∑an converges.
The converse of theorem is not true. For example,
the alternating harmonic series converges. But the
harmonic series diverges.

Sequences & Series 75

Definitions
(a) ∑an is absolutely convergent if ∑|an| converges.
(b) ∑an is conditionally convergent if ∑an
converges but ∑|an| diverges.

Sequences & Series 76

Example 2
Determine whether each of the series is convergent or
divergent. Classify any convergent series as absolutely
or conditionally convergent.

n ( n +1) / 2
∞ (−1) ∞ (−1)n −1
(a) ∑ n (b) ∑
n =1 3 n =1 n p

∞
sin n
∞ (−1) n
(c) ∑ 2 (d) ∑
n =1 n n =1 ln( n +1)

Sequences & Series 77

1.7 Power Series
Definitions
A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form
∞

∑c x
n =0
n
n
= c0 +c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + L + cn x + L
2 3 n

A power series about x = a is a series of the form

∞

∑n
c (
n= 0
x − a)n
= 0c 1+c ( x −a) 2c+ ( x 2
aL)− + cn (+x aL)n −

in which the center a and the coefficients c0, c1, …,

cn, … are constants.
Sequences & Series 78
Example 1
The following power series about x = 0.
∞
∑x n 2
= 1 + x + x L+ n
+x L +
n= 0

This is the geometric series with first term 1 and

ratio x. It converges to 1/(1 – x) for |x| < 1. We
express this fact by writing
1 2 n
= 1 +x +x L+ x+ L + , 1 − x < 1. <
1− x

Sequences & Series 79

 y2 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5 + x 6 + x 7 + x 8

1
y=
1− x

y2 = 1 + x + x 2
y1 = 1 + x
y0 = 1

Sequences & Series 80

 Example 2
A power series about x = 2
n
1 1  1
1 − ( x − 2) + ( x − 2) − L +  −  ( x − 2)n + L
2
2 4  2
This is a geometric series with first term 1 and ratio
–(x – 2)/2. This series converges for
x−2 1 1 2
< 1 or 0 < x < 4. The sum is = = ,
2 1− r 1 − x − 2 x
2
n
2 1 1  1
so = 1 − ( x − 2) + ( x − 2) − L +  −  ( x − 2)n + L , 0 < x < 4.
2
x 2 4  2

Sequences & Series 81

 2
y=
x

3x x 2
y2 = 3 − +
2 4

y0 = 1
x
y1 = 2 −
2

Sequences & Series 82

Example 3
For what values of x do the following power series
converge?
∞
xn
(a) ∑ (−1) n −1
n =1 n
∞ 2 n −1
x
(b) ∑ (−1) n −1

n =1 2n − 1
∞
xn
(c) ∑
n =0 n !
∞
(d) ∑ n ! x n

n =0
Sequences & Series 83
Theorem 18 The Convergence
Theorem for Power Series
∞
If the power series ∑ cn x n 2
= c0 + c1 x + c2 x + L
n =1
converges for x = a ≠ 0, then it converges absolutely
for all x with x < a . If the series diverges for x = b,
then it diverges for all x with x > b .

Sequences & Series 84

Radius of Convergence
The convergence of the series ∑cn(x – a)n is described
by one of the following three possibilities.
1. There is a positive number R such that the series
diverges for x with |x - a| > R but converges
absolutely for x with |x - a| < R. The series may or
may not converge at either of the endpoints x = a – R
and x = a + R.
2. The series converges absolutely for every x (R = ∞).
3. The series converges at x = a and diverges elsewhere
(R = 0).

Sequences & Series 85

Summary
R is called the radius of convergence of the power
series.
The interval of radius R centered at x = a is called
the interval of convergence.
Use the Ratio or Root Tests to find the interval
where the series converges absolutely.

Sequences & Series 86

Example 4
Find the radius of convergence and the interval of
convergence.
∞ n
x
(b) ∑
∞
(a) ∑ n ! xn
n =1 n
n= 0
∞ ∞
(− 1)n (x +1)n
(c) ∑ 3( x − n
2) (d) ∑ n
n= 0 n= 0 2
∞
xn
(e) ∑
n= 0 n !

Sequences & Series 87

Theorem 19 The Term-by-Term
Differentiation
∞
If ∑n
c ( x − a) n
converges for a − R < x < a + R for some
n =0
R > 0, it defines a function f :
∞
f ( x ) = ∑ c n ( x − a ) n, a− R < x < a+ R
n =0
such a function f has derivatives of all orders inside
the interval of convergence. W e can obtain the derivatives
by differentiating the original series t erm by term:

Sequences & Series 88

 ∞
f ′( x) = ∑ ncn ( x − a) n−1
n =1
∞
f ′′( x) = ∑ n( n − 1)cn ( x − a) n−2 ,
n =1
and so on. Each of this derived series converges at every
interior point of the interval of convergence of the original
series.

Sequences & Series 89

Example 5
Find the series for f′ (x) and f″ (x) if
∞
1
f ( x) = =∑ x =1 +x +x L + x+L
n 2 n
+, 1 − x <1
1 − x n= 0

Sequences & Series 90

Theorem 20 Term-by-Term
∞
Integration
Suppose that f ( x) = ∑ cn ( x − a) n
n =0
converges for a − R < x < a + R (R > 0). Then
∞
( x − a ) n+1
∑ cn n + 1
n =0
converges for a − R < x < a + R and
∞
( x − a ) n +1
∫ f ( x)dx = ∑ cn +C
n =0 n +1
for a − R < x < a + R.
Sequences & Series 91
Example 6 A series for tan-1 x, -1
≤ x ≤the1function
Identify
x3 x5
f ( x) = x − + − L , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
3 5

Sequences & Series 92

Example 7 A series for ln(1+x), -1
≤ xseries
The ≤1
1
= 1 − t + t 2 − t3 +L
1+ t
converges on the open interval -1 < t < 1. Therefore,
x
1
ln(1 + x) = ∫ dt
0
1+ t

Sequences & Series 93

 1.8 Taylor and Maclaurin
Series
The power series
f ( x) = 0c + 1c ( x −a) c+ ( x a ) −
2
2
c ( x+L a)
3
3
−
By theorem 1.6.1
f ′( x) = 1c + 2 2c ( x −a) 33+c ( x a) − 4 4c (+Lx a)
2 3

′′
f ( x) = 22 c + 2 3⋅3 c ( x a−) 3 +44 c (⋅ x L a) −
2

f ′′′( x) = 3!3 c + 2 3⋅ 44⋅ c ( x L a)− +

…

f ( x) = n!n c +( n 1)!
(n )
++1n c ( x L a) − +
Sequences & Series 94
 Evaluating each of these derivatives at x = a yields
f ( a) = 0c c0 = f( a)
f ′( a)= 1c c1 = f′( a)
f ′′( a)
f ′′( a) = 2 !2 c c2 =
2!
f ′′′( a)
f ′′′( a) = 3!3 c c3 =
3!
…

…
(n )
f ( a) = n!n c
(n ) f ( a)
cn =
n!
Sequences & Series 95
 Definition
If f be a function with derivatives of all orders
throughout some interval containing a as an interior
point. Then the Taylor series generated by f at x = a
is
∞
f ( n ) ( a) ′′ f ( a) 2
f ( x) = ∑ ( x −an ) =f ( a ) ′ +f ( a)( x a−) + (x
n= 0 n! 2!
f ′′′( a) (n )
f ( a)
+ x( −a 3 ) L+ + x( an −) L +
3! n !

Sequences & Series 96

The Maclaurin series generated by f is
∞
f ( n) (0) n ′′
f (0)
f ( x) = ∑ ′ x+
x = f (0)+ f (0) x 2

n =0 n! 2!
f ′′′(0) 3 f ( n)(0) n
+ x + ... + + x+ L
3! n!

Sequences & Series 97

Example 1
Find the Taylor series generated by f(x) = 1/x at a = 2.
Where, if anywhere, does the series converges to 1/x?

Sequences & Series 98

Example 2
Find the Taylor series at x = a and the Maclaurin
series for
(a) f(x) = sinx
(b) f(x) = cosx
(c) f(x) = ex

Sequences & Series 99

Example 3
Find the Maclaurin series for

(a) f(x) = sinx2

(b) f(x) = e2x
(c) f(x) = (1 +x)1/3
1
(d) f ( x) =
1+ x

Sequences & Series 100

 Taylor Polynomial of Order n
Let f be a function with derivatives of order k = 1, 2,
…, N in some interval containing a as an interior
point. Then for any integer n from 0 to N, the Taylor
polynomial of order n generated by f at x = a is the
polynomial
f ′′( a) 2 f ( ′′′a)
Pn ( x) = f ( a) + ′ f ( a)( x −a) + ( x a)− + ( x3L a)
2! 3!
f ( k )( a) k f (n )
( a)
+ x( a− ) L + + x( a n )−
k! n!

Sequences & Series 101

Example 4
Find the Taylor polynomials generated by f(x) = ex at
x = 0.
y = e x y = P3 ( x)
y = P2 ( x )

y = P1 ( x)

Sequences & Series 102

Example 5
Find the Taylor polynomials generated by f(x) =
cos(x) at x = 0.
P12 P16
P4 P8

y = cos x

P14
P2 P6 P10

Sequences & Series 103

Example 6
Approximate sin59º by use the Taylor series in
example 2

Sequences & Series 104

Example 7
1

∫
2
Approximate sin x dx
0

Sequences & Series 105