DC GENERATOR

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Energy can be converted form one form to another.

It uses Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

Whenever there is change in the magnetic flux
associated with conductor, an EMF is induced in it.

Cont
The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given by
Flemings right hand rule
As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a
conductor moves inside a magnetic field, there will be an induced
current in it. If this conductor gets forcefully moved inside the
magnetic field, there will be a relation between the direction of
applied force, magnetic field and the current. This relation among
these three directions is determined by Fleming Right Hand rule

Simple Loop DC Generator

Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform

magnetic field with a constant speed as shown in Fig.(1.1). As the
loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD changes
continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also
changes but the e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds to that
induced in the other. E.M.F. generated in the loop is alternating
one. It is because any coil side, say AB has e.m.f. in one direction
when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction
when under the influence of S-pole.

Cont

A DC Generator operates on the principle of dynamically induced emf.

To convert the alternating bidirectional alternating current into
unidirectional direct current split rings are used.
Split rings are cut into two half's called segment separated by insulated
sheet mica. The ring segments are also kept insulated from the central
shaft and are connected to the ends of the coil and the carbon brushes.

The action of split rings is called commutation

Cont

Construction of DC Generator

Yoke of DC Generator - yoke are made of cast iron

Yoke of DC generator serves two purposes
It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as
cover of the generator.
It carries the magnetic field flux.

Cont.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes of DC Generator- There are mainly two
types of construction available.
One: Solid pole care, where it made of a solid single piece of cast iron or
cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations
of annealed steel which are riveted together.
The pole core is fixed to the inner periphery of the yoke by means of
bolts through the yoke and into the pole body.
The pole shoes are so typically shaped, that, they spread out the
magnetic flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of the magnetic
path.

Cont..

Armature Core of DC Generator- The purpose of armature core is to

hold the armature winding and provide low reluctance path for the flux
through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator
provides direct current but induced current in the armature is alternating
in nature. That is why, cylindrical or drum shaped armature core is build
up of circular laminated sheet.
Armature Winding of DC Generator - Armature winding are
generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil
puller. Various conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The
conductors are placed in the armature slots, which are lined with tough
insulating material.

Cont.

Commutator of DC Generator - The commutator plays a vital role in

dc generator. It collects current from armature and sends it to the load as
direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and
converts it to direct current and then send it to external load.
Brushes of DC Generator - The brushes are made of carbon. These are
rectangular block shaped. The only function of these carbon brushes of
DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments.
Bearing of DC Generator - For small machine, ball bearing is used and
for heavy duty dc generator, roller bearing is used

Cont.

Pole pitch The periphery of the armature divide by the number of the poles of the generator i.e
the distance between the two adjacent poles.
It is equal to the number of armature conductors per pole. If there are 48 conductors and 4
poles, the pole pitch is 48/4 = 12
Coil Span or Coil Pitch (Ys) It is distance measured in terms of armature slots between two
sides of a coil.
If the pole span or coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch, then the winding is called as full
pitched. i.e coil span is 180 deg. In this case coil sides lie under opposite poles, hence induced
emfs in them are additive. Maximum emf is induced.

If coil span is less the the pole pitch, then winding is fractional pitched.
Ex. 36 slots and 4 poles, the coil span is 9 slots. If the number of slots is 35, coil span is 8
necessary to drop the fractions.
Fractional pitched windings uses saving in copper.

Cont.

Back Pitch (YB) It is distance measured in terms of armature conductors,

which a coil advances on the back of the armature is calledd back pitch.
Front Pitch (YF) Number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a
coil on front is called front pitch.
Resultant Pitch (YR) distance between beginning of one coil and the
beginning of next coil to which it is connected.

Y YB YF .........LapWinding
Y YB YF .........WaveWindin g

Cont.

Lap & Wave Winding mostly employed for drum type armatures
The difference between is due to arrangement of the end connections at
the front or commutator end of armature
The windings should be full pitched. This results in increased emf round
the coils.
Both the pitches should be odd . If both are even all coil sides and
conductor would lie either in upper half of the slots or in lower half.
The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of the slots or
coil because front end of conductors are joined to the segments in pair.
The winding must close itself.

GENERATED E.M.F
Let = flux/pole in weber
Z = Total number of armature conductors = No. of Slots* No. of conductors/slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = Armature rotation in revolutions per minute (RPM)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated EMF Eg=emf generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e. E.
Average emf generated/conductor =d/dtVolt
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d= P Wb
No. of revolution/second = N/60
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N
According to faradays law, d PN

EMF generated/conductor = dt 60
For Simplex Wave Wound Generator
No. of parallel paths =2
No. of conductors (in series)
path = Z/2
PN in
Z one
ZPN
*
EMF generated/path = 60 2 120

Cont

For Simplex Lap Wound Generator

No. of parallel paths =P
No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
EMF generated/path = PN * Z ZN
60

60

IRON LOSS IN ARMATURE

Hysteresis Losses (Wh) This loss is duce to the reversal of magnetization of

the armature core. Every portion of the rotating core passes under N & S pole
alternately, thereby attaining S & N Polarity respectively. The core undergoes
one complete cycle of magnetic reversal after passing under one pair of poles.
The frequency of magnetic reversal is f=PN/120
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of iron, maximum value of
flux density Bmax and frequency of magnetic reversals.
1.6
Wh Bmax
fV

Eddy Current Losses (We) When the armature core rotates, it also cuts the
magnetic flux. An EMF is induced in the body of the core according to the laws
of electromagnetic induction
This EMF though small sets up a large current in the body of the core due
to its small resistance. This current is known as eddy current.
2
We KBmax
f 2V 2t 2

Cont.

Cont.
Total Losses
Copper Loss
Armature Copper Loss this loss is 30 to 40% of full load
losses. Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
Field Copper Loss in case of shunt generators Ish2Rsh, it is
practically constant and in case of series generator it is I se2Rse it is
about 20 to 30% full load losses.
Magnetic Loss also called as iron losses.
Mechanical Loss These consist of (i) friction loss at bearings and
commutator (ii) air friction or windage loss of rotating armature.

Stray Losses Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known

as stray losses.

Constant & Standing Losses field cu loss is constant for shunt and
compound generators. Stray loss and cu loss are constant. These losses
together known as standing or constant losses.

POWER STAGES

1. Mechanical Efficiency
2. Electrical Efficiency
3. Overall or Commercial Efficiency

C
e
B

C
c
A

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

Generator Output = VI
Generator Input = output + losses

VI I

2
a

Ra Wc VI I I sh Ra Wc

output
VI
VI

2
input VI I a Ra Wc VI I 2 Ra Wc
I a I
Efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum i.e. when

d IRa Wc

0
dI V
VI
Ra Wc
2 0
V VI
I 2 Ra Wc

ARMATURE REACTION
Field Flux
Dc machine is doubly excited. It has two parts one is field and another is
armature. The purpose of field is to provide requisite flux density for machine
working. The purpose of armature is to carry the required amount of current
through its conductor which is necessary for electromagnetic interaction.
If we consider that when current passes through armature conductor they also
produces their magnetic effect. Then how this magnetic flux produce by
armature conductor interacts with field flux. Armature reaction evolves.
The effect of armature flux on the main flux or interaction of armature flux
with main flux or field flux is called armature reaction.

Cont
Armature Flux
The flux produced by armature conductor. The conductors are divided into
two halves along GNA if conductor is in left half falling under north pole,
the current are carried inside the plane and conductor falling under south
pole, the current are carried outward the plane.
The lines of flux around this conductor, lines will be concentric lines and
direction can be found using Fleming right hand rule.

Cont
Resultant Flux
In left top corner the flux density is increased because direction of flux
produced by armature and flux produced by field is same direction.
Below to flux is opposite in direction.

Cont

Effects on field flux

Cross magnetizing armature flux is adding field flux
De magnetizing opposing field flux
The amount of magnetization is same as amount of demagnetization.
But that it is not the case. That is explained in next diagram.

Cont
Flux density is uniform under the pole. After the pole tip air gap suddenly
increase flux density is decreased . After GNA flux density becomes zero.
Flux density under both pole will be in opposite direction.
Armature mmf and armature flux
Armature mmf is number of turns and current through conductors.
Armature conductor in armature periphery. At center of pole no of coils
enclosed by flux is minimum or zero therefore armature mmf is minimum.
The direction of lines is upward mmf is increasing in positive direction. But
ion left side of conductor direction of magnetic lines is downward so mmf
is increasing in negative direction. It is increasing upto GNA because at this
lines of forces are enclosing maximum number of conductors.
Armature flux will be armature mmf /reluctance. Under the pole air gap is
uniform reluctance is also uniform. When pole tips after that air gap
increase that decrease armature flux . Dip in flux.
Shift of neutral axis. Angle of shift in forward direction in generator and in
opposite direction in motor.

DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF ARMATURE

REACTION ON PERFORMANCE OF DC
MACHINE
Increased iron loss
Bad commutation commutation in not sparkless. Spark is produced
between commutator and brushes. At GNA because it has shifted from
original position rotational EMF will be developed
Increased cost of field winding armature reaction decrease amount of flux
because of demagnetizing effect. To maintain same flux need to provide
more turns in field winding.
It will be not be observed in no load or light load condition because all this
are related to armature flux. Severe under loaded condition.

METHODS OF MINIMIZING EFFECTS

For smaller size machine
High reluctance pole tips
Decreasing the armature flux punched poles air gap increase
reluctance
By developing strong magnetic field- field flux more stronger .

METHODS OF MINIMIZING EFFECTS

For larger size machine
By employing inter poles interpoles are small capacity located in
interpolar area i.e. area between two main poles and this small poles
provide flux density opposite to armature flux.
By employing compensating winding winding located on pole faces
but they carry current of armature so they produce same effect as
armature conductor but in opposite direction.

COMMUTATION

Cont..

Cont..

METHODS OF IMPROVING
COMMUTATION
RESISTANCE COMMUTATION
This method consist of improving commutation consist of replacing low
resistance Cu brushes by comparatively high resistance carbon brushes.
When current I from coil C reaches the commutator segment b, it has
two parallel paths open to it. The first part is straight from bar b to the
brush and other parallel path is via the short circuited coil B to bar a
and then to the brush.

Cont
If the Cu brushes are used, then there is no inducement for the
current to follow the second longer path, it would follow the first
path.
But when carbon brushes having high resistance is used, then
current I coming from C will prefer to pass through the second
path because :
The resistance r1 of the first path will increase due to
diminishing area of contact of the bar b with the brush.
Resistance r2 of second path will decrease due to rapidly
increasing contact area of bar a with the brush.

Cont.
E.M.F COMMUTATION
Arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by
producing a reversing emf in short circuited coil under
commutation.
The reversing emf is and emf in opposition to reactance voltage
and its value is made equal to the latter, it will completely wipe
off, thereby producing quick reversal of current in the short
circuited coil which will result in sparkless commutation.
The reversing emf may be produced in two ways (i) either by
giving brushes a forward lead sufficient enough to bring the short
circuited coil under the influence of next pole of opposite e
polarity or (ii) by using interpoles

CHARACTERISITC OF DC GENERATORS
NO LOAD SATURATION CURVE (E0/If) It is known as
magnetic characteristic or open circuit characteristic. It is just the
magnetization curve for material of the electromagnets.
INTERNAL OR TOTAL CHARACTERISTIC (E/Ia) It gives
the relation between the emf actually induces in the armature and
the armature current
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISITC (V/I) It is also referred as
performance characteristic or sometimes voltage regulating curve.
It gives relation between the terminal voltage V and the load
current I. it lies below the internal characteristic because it takes
into account the voltage drop over the armature circuit resistance.

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC

NO LOAD SATURATION CURVE
(E0/If) The exciting or field current If is
obtained from an external independent DC
src. It can be varied from 0 upwards by
potentiometer and
current is by ammeter
ZNP
connected. E g 60 A
When If is increased from initial small
value, the flux & Eg increases directly as
current so long as the poles are unsaturated,
i.e Od.
But as flux density increase the poles
becomes saturated, so greater increase in If
is required to produce a given increase in
voltage than on the lower part of curve.

LOAD SATURATION CURVE

LOAD SATURATION CURVE (V/If)
Demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction and the voltage drop in
armature .
At no load the field amp turns required
for no load voltage are given by Oa.
Under load conditions, the voltage will
decrease due to demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction. This decrease can be
made up suitably increasing field amp
turns.
ac
represents
equivalent
demagnetizing amp-turns per pole.
In order to generate the same emf on
load as at no load, the field amp
turns/pole must be increase by ac=bd

Cont.
The point d lies on the curve LS which shows relation
between E under load condition and field amp turns. LS
is parallel to Ob.
Terminal voltage V will be less than E by amount
armature drop. From point d, a vertical line de=IaRa.
The point lies e on full load saturation curve for
generator. Mp is full load saturation curve.
The right angle triangle bde is known as drop reaction
triangle. Load saturation curve for half load can be
obtained by joining the mid points of such lines as mn
and bd etc.

INTERNAL & EXTERNAL

CHARACTERISTIC

If there were no armature reaction and

armature voltage drop, then this voltage
would have remain constant, by dotted
horizontal line I
If we subtract from E0 the values of
voltage drops due to armature reaction for
different loads, then we get values of E the
emf actually inducted in the armature under
load conditions curve II, known as internal
characteristic.
The straight line Oa represent the IaRa drop.
If we subtract E from IaRa we get V, Curve
III, known as external characteristic.

SELF EXCITED GENERATOR

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC

If is increased by suitable steps and the
corresponding values of E0 are measured.
Due to residual magnetism in the poles,
some emf (OA) is generated even when
If=0.
The first part is of curve is practically
straight due to low flux density, reluctance
of iron path being negligible.
The flux and consequently, the generated
emf is directly proportional to the exciting
current.
After pt B, saturation of poles starts.

VOLTAGE BUILD UP IN SHUNT

GENERATOR

OCC is shown in fig. the shunt field

resistance is represented by OA. When
armature is rotated at constant speed
rad/sec, the small residual flux of the poles
is cut by armature conductors and very
small emf (oa) is induced in armature.
If switch K is closed, current ob flows in
field winding. This current increases the
flux produced by the poles and voltage
generated in the armature is increased to oc
which further increase in the field current
to od which further builds up the voltage.
This building action comes to end at pt f
where OCC intersects shunt field OA

CRITICAL RESISTANCE FOR SHUNT

GENERATOR

Due to residual magnetism in the poles, some emf & hence

current through field coil will strengthen the magnetism of the
poles. This will increase pole flux and increase generated emf.
The point lies on the resistance line OA of the field winding. The
voltage OL corresponding to P represents maximum voltage to
which the machine will build up with R. OB represents smaller
resistance and the corresponding voltage OM greater than OL.

Cont
If field resistance is increased, then the slope of resistance line
increased, & maximum voltage to which generator will build up
at given speed decreases.
If R is increased so much that the resistance line does not cut the
OCC the machine will fail to excite.
If the resistance line just lies along the slope, then with that value
of field resistance, the machine will just excite.
The value of resistance represented by tangent to the curve, is
known as critical resistance Rc for a given speed.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC
Shunt generator is loaded, then its terminal voltage V drops with
increase in load current. Such a drop in voltage is undesirable
especially when the generator is supplying current for light and
power for which purpose it is desirable that V should remain
practically constant and independent of the load.
As the load is increased gradually, IL increases but terminal voltage
decreases . These are three main reason for the drop in terminal
voltage of shunt generator under load.
Armature resistance drop
Armature reaction drop
Drop in terminal voltage V due to above two reasons.

Cont

The shunt generator is first excited on no load so that it gives full

open circuit voltage=Oa. Load is gradually applied and at suitable
intervals, the terminal voltage V and load current I are noted.
A1 is kept constant by rheostat. The portion ab is working part of
this curve.
If load is decreased, load current is increased, this result in
comparatively small additional drop in voltage.

Cont..
This condition holds good till pt B is reached. This point is known
as breakdown pt.
Beyond this pt (where load is maximum OB) any effort to increase
load current by further decreasing load resistance result in
decreased load current due to very rapid decrease in terminal
voltage.
At pt B, generator is delivering a very large current i.e. current
which is many times greater than its normal current. If load
resistance is decreased at this pt so as to be able to draw a load
current greater than OB, the current is increased momentarily.
But due to the severe armature reaction for this heavy current and
increased IaRa drop, V is drastically reduced. The effect of this
drastic reduction results in less load current (OA).
Over portion bdc, V decreases more rapidly.

INTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC

In fig. ab represents external characteristic. The field resistance

line is OB. Distance between OY & OB gives value of field
current for different terminal voltages.
If we add these distances horizontally to the external characteristic
ab, we get total armature. Pt d is obtained by making gd=ef.
For any armature current OK armature voltage drop Km. If we
add these drops to coordinate of curve ac we get internal

Cont
For ex. St=Km. t lies on internal characteristic.
If load resistance is decreased, the armature current
increases up to a certain load current value, after that any
further decrease in load resistance do not increase in load
current .
Rather it turns back and the curve turns back. If the load
resistance is too small, then the generator is short
circuited and there is no generated emf due to heavy
demagnetization of main poles.
Line OP is tangential to internal characteristic MB and its
slope gives the value of minimum resistance with which
generator will excite if excited on load.

SERIES GENERATOR

Cont

In this generator field wdg is in series with armature they carry

full armature current Ia. As Ia is increased flux & Eg is increased .
Curve Oa.
The extra current required to neutralize the weakening effect of
armature reaction at full load is given by horizontal distance ab. Pt
b is on internal characteristic. If ordinate bc=gh=armature voltage
drop, pt c lies on external characteristic.

Cont
Series generator has rising voltage characteristic i.e with
increase in load, its voltage is also increased.
At high loads, the voltage starts decreasing due to
excessive demagnetizing effects of armature reaction.
Terminal voltage start decreasing as load current is
increased as shown by dotted curve. For load current
OC, terminal voltage is reduced to zero.

COMPOUND GENERATOR

Cont
In such generator when load current increase, flux increases which
increases the induced emf. This extra induced emf compensates the
voltage drop in the armature resistance and the demagnetizing
effect due to armature reaction.
A cumulatively compound wound generator is shown in fig. its
level of compounding can be changed by varying the amount of
current passing through the series field winding by connecting Rh.
When the field current is adjusted such that the terminal voltage V
on full load remains the same as that on no load, the generator is
called to be flat compounded generator.
When the terminal voltage on full load is more than its terminal
voltage at no load the generator is called to be an over
compounded generator.
When terminal voltage on full load is less than no load voltage the
generator is called as compounded generator.

Cont
If the field produce by the series field winding acts in opposite
direction to the field produced by shunt field winding, the
generator is called to be differentially compounded.