Structures for Discrete-Time Systems
Quote of the Day
Today's scientists have substituted mathematics for
experiments, and they wander off through equation
after equation, and eventually build a structure which
has no relation to reality.
Nikola Tesla
Content and Figures are from Discrete-Time Signal Processing, 2e by Oppenheim, Shafer, and Buck, 1999-2000 Prentice Hall Inc.
Example
Block diagram representation of
yn a1yn 1 a2yn 2 b0xn
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
Block Diagram Representation
LTI systems with rational
system function can be
represented as constantcoefficient difference equation
The implementation of
difference equations requires
delayed values of the
input
output
intermediate results
The requirement of delayed
elements implies need for
storage
We also need means of
addition
multiplication
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
Direct Form I
General form of difference equation
N
a yn k b xn k
k 0
Alternative equivalent form
N
k 0
yn ak yn k
k 1
Copyright (C
b xn k
k 0
351M Digital Signal Processing
Direct Form I
Transfer function can be written as
M
H z
k
b
z
k
V z H1 z X z
b z
k 0
k 0
k
b
z
k
X z
k 1
1 ak z
vn
yn
b xn k
k 0
a yn k vn
k 1
Y z H2 z V z
Copyright (C
1 ak z k
k 1
Direct Form I Represents
1
H z H2 z H1 z
N
k
1 ak z
k 1
k 0
V z
351M Digital Signal Processing
Alternative Representation
Replace order of cascade LTI systems
H z H1 z H2 z bk z k
N
k
k 0
1
ak z
k 1
1
X z
W z H2 z X z
N
k
1 ak z
k 1
Y z H1 z W z bk z k W z
k 0
Copyright (C
wn
yn
a wn k xn
k 1
b wn k
k 0
351M Digital Signal Processing
Alternative Block Diagram
We can change the order of the cascade systems
wn
yn
a wn k xn
k 1
b wn k
k 0
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
Direct Form II
No need to store the same
data twice in previous
system
So we can collapse the
delay elements into one
chain
This is called Direct Form II
or the Canonical Form
Theoretically no difference
between Direct Form I and
II
Implementation wise
Less memory in Direct II
Difference when using
finite-precision arithmetic
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
Signal Flow Graph Representation
Similar to block diagram representation
Notational differences
A network of directed branches connected at nodes
Example representation of a difference equation
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
Example
Representation of Direct Form II with signal flow graphs
w1 n aw4 n xn
w2 n w1 n
w3 n b0w2 n b1w4 n
w4 n w2 n 1
yn w3 n
w1 n aw1 n 1 xn
yn b0w1 n b1w1 n 1
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
10
Determination of System Function from Flow Graph
w1 n w4 n xn
w2 n w1 n
w3 n w2 n xn
w4 n w3 n 1
yn w2 n w4 n
W1 z W4 z X z
W2 z W1 z
W3 z W2 z X z
W4 z W3 z z 1
Y z W2 z W4 z
Copyright (C
X z z 1 1
W2 z
1 z 1
X z z 1 1
W4 z
1 z 1
Y z W2 z W4 z
Y z
z 1
H z
X z 1 z 1
hn n 1un 1 n 1un
351M Digital Signal Processing
11
Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Direct Form I
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
12
Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Direct Form II
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
13
Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Cascade Form
General form for cascade implementation
M1
H z A
k 1
N1
k 1
N2
1 c z 1 d z 1 d z
k
k 1
M2
1 f z 1 g z 1 g z
1
k 1
More practical form in 2nd order systems
M1
b0k b1k z 1 b2k z 2
H z
1
a2k z 2
k 1 1 a1k z
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
14
Example
1 2z 1 z 2
1 z 1 1 z 1
H z
1
2
1 0.75z 0.125z
1 0.5z 1 1 0.25z 1
1 z
1
1 z
1 0.5z 1 0.25z
1
Cascade of Direct Form I subsections
Cascade of Direct Form II subsections
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
15
Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Parallel Form
Represent system function using partial fraction expansion
NP
NP
NP
Ak
Bk 1 ek z 1
k
H z Ck z
1
1
1
1
c
z
1
d
z
1
d
k 0
k 1
k 1
k
k
kz
Or by pairing the real poles
H z
NP
C z
k 0
Copyright (C
NS
e0k e1k z 1
1
a2k z 2
k 1 1 a1k z
351M Digital Signal Processing
16
Example
Partial Fraction Expansion
1 2z 1 z 2
18
25
H z
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2
1 0.5z 1
1 0.25z 1
Combine poles to get
7 8z 1
H z 8
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
17
Transposed Forms
Linear signal flow graph property:
Transposing doesnt change the input-output relation
Transposing:
Reverse directions of all branches
Interchange input and output nodes
Example:
H z
1
1 az 1
Reverse directions of branches and interchange input and output
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
18
Example
Transpose
Both have the same system function or difference equation
yn a1yn 1 a2yn 2 b0 xn b1xn 1 b2xn 2
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
19
Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Direct Form
Special cases of IIR direct form structures
Transpose of direct form I gives direct form II
Both forms are equal for FIR systems
Tapped delay line
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
20
Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Cascade Form
Obtained by factoring the polynomial system function
H z
Copyright (C
hnz
n0
MS
b
k 1
0k
b1k z 1 b2k z 2
351M Digital Signal Processing
21
Structures for Linear-Phase FIR Systems
Causal FIR system with generalized linear phase are
symmetric:
hM n hn
hM n hn
n 0,1,..., M
(type I or III)
n 0,1,..., M
(type II or IV)
Symmetry means we can half the number of multiplications
Example: For even M and type I or type III systems:
yn
M / 2 1
k 0
k 0
k M / 2 1
hk xn k hk xn k hM / 2xn M / 2 hk xn k
M / 2 1
M / 2 1
k 0
k 0
hk xn k hM / 2xn M / 2 hM k xn M k
M / 2 1
hk xn k xn M k hM / 2xn M / 2
k 0
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
22
Structures for Linear-Phase FIR Systems
Structure for even M
Structure for odd M
Copyright (C
351M Digital Signal Processing
23