The Origin of Life on Earth
How Can We Study a Unique
Event that Happened Several
Billion Years Ago?
Hypothesis: Life arose by chemical
evolution
Pre-life processes observed in
biochemistry
heredity (genetic material) evolves
The Origin and History of Life on Earth
• What is Life?
Life is, to the best of our knowledge to
date, unique to our planet Earth.
There is no simple definition of Life,
except that life forms are able to act on
their own behalf to support their own
existence, and to reproduce themselves.
The field of science known as Biology is
dedicated to the study of life, its
component species, and the variations
within species of life forms.
Earth’s Biosphere and Life Science
• Our Earth is as far as we know the only planet in our Solar
System (or beyond) which supports life of any kind.
• The time table and processes of the origin of life is poorly
known at present, but there is evidence that the simplest
forms of life came into being more than 3 billion years ago
(out of the total of 4.6 billion years our Earth has been in
existence).
• Earth’s original atmosphere contained little or no molecular
oxygen, which is required by current animal and advanced
plant life forms.
Necessary Conditions for the
Origin of Life
Earth at the time of life’s origin
reducing atmosphere and energy (uv
and lighting (and from earth).
result: small molecules (monomers)
essential to living systems form and
polymerize.
Necessary Conditions for the
Origin of Life is polymerization
generate carbohydrates, lipids,
amino acids, and nucleic acids
molecules accumulated and
concentrated
How Did Life Begin?
Experiments Refuted Spontaneous Generation
Chemical Evolution Preceded and Gave Rise to Life
Organic Molecules Can Form Spontaneously Under Prebiotic Conditions
Organic Molecules Probably Accumulated Under Prebiotic Conditions
Organic Molecules May Have Become Concentrated in Tidal Pools
• RNA May Have Been the First Self-Reproducing Molecule
• Membrane-Like Microspheres May Have Enclosed Ribozymes
Did Microspheres Enclose the Earliest Cells?
• Cell-like microspheres can be formed by agitating proteins and lipids
in a liquid medium. Each microsphere in this photo is about 5
micrometers (µm) in diameter.
Earth’s Biosphere and Life Science
• The oxygen currently in our atmosphere is produced by green
plant photosynthesis, which began with reduction of carbon
dioxide by anaerobic bacteria, also known as cyanobacteria or
“blue-green algae”, inhabiting the oceans in Earth’s early
history.
• Animal life, as we know it (which requires atmospheric
oxygen), did not come into existence until about 600 million
years ago.
• An important topic of the present day is that humans are
returning CO2 to the atmosphere at a faster rate than plants
can reduce it to form O2, which can cause global warming.
Evolution of Oxygen Content of Earth’s Atmosphere
Experimental Research on the Origin of
Life
• One of the greatest unsolved mysteries of science is, “how did life
evolve on Earth?”
• We have evidence that the oldest and simplest forms of life,
anaerobic bacteria, may have formed more than 3.6 billion years
ago (only 1 billion years after Earth was created).
• These life forms, also called cyano-bacteria or “blue-green algae”,
did not require oxygen to breathe (as do nearly all organisms
inhabiting Earth at the present time).
Experimental Research on the Origin of
Life
• However, the capability of these anaerobic bacteria to convert
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into oxygen (O2) and carbohydrates
made possible the evolution of more complex life forms, including all
animal life, that breathe oxygen and feed upon plant carbohydrates.
• Since we have very few geologic records of the earliest periods of life
on Earth, scientists have performed laboratory experiments with
electric discharges (simulating lightning) in various mixtures of gases
(simulating Earth’s earliest atmosphere) to see if the chemical
substances required for life forms could have been produced by
lightning early in Earth’s history.
The Experimental Apparatus
of Stanley Miller and
Harold Urey
• Life's earliest stages left no fossils, so evolutionary historians have pursued a
strategy of re-creating in the laboratory the conditions that may have prevailed on
early Earth.
• The mixture of gases in the spark chamber simulates lightning in Earth's early
atmosphere.
The Miller-Urey experiment
• At the end of one week of
continuous operation Miller and
Urey observed that as much as 10-
15% of the carbon within the
system was now in the form of
organic compounds. Two percent
of the carbon had formed amino
acids, including 13 of the 22 that
are used to make proteins in living
cells, with glycine as the most
abundant. Sugars, lipids, and some
of the building blocks for nucleic
acids were also formed. Nucleic
acids (DNA, RNA) themselves were
not formed. As observed in all
consequent experiments, both left-
handed (L) and right-handed (D)
optical isomers were created in a
racemic mixture
The Murchison Meteorite crashed on September 28, 1969,
near Murchison, Australia. The meteorite contains minerals,
water, and complex organic molecules such as amino acids.
• Meteorites have been found
to contain amino acids (the
building blocks of proteins),
sugars, fatty acids (the
building blocks of lipids),
and nucleic acid bases. The
Murchison meteorite, for
instance, contains chains of
fatty acids, various types of
sugars, all five nucleic acid
bases, and more than 70
different amino acids (life
uses 20 amino acids, only
six of which are in the
Murchison meteorite).
Building Life from Star-Stuff
• Infrared and radio
telescope observations
of the clouds have
detected the PAHs, as
well as fatty acids,
simple sugars, faint
amounts of the amino
acid glycine, and over
100 other molecules,
including water, carbon
monoxide, ammonia,
formaldehyde, and
hydrogen cyanide.
Is Life Evolving from Non-life
Today?
• Most chemical reactions that gave rise
to life occur readily under the
conditions that prevailed on early
Earth
Is Life Evolving from Nonlife
Today?
• Experiments by Louis Pasteur and
others convinced scientists that life
does not come from non-life on Earth
today.
No growth Growth
(Broth cooled (Broth cooled
Broth Heated to without exposure and exposed to
Boiling to Sterilize to room air) room air)
Louis Pasteur's experiment disproving the spontaneous generation of
microorganisms in broth.
Is Life Evolving from Non-life
Today?
New life is no longer being assembled
from nonliving matter
molecules are oxidized
molecules are consumed
Protobionts: Enclosing
Prebiotic Systems
• Protobionts- aggregation of
polymers...living cell precursors
• The earliest protobionts probably had
lipid-based membranes.
figure [Link]
Protobionts: Enclosing
Prebiotic Systems
• First genetic material (information
storage) - RNA (not DNA!)
• RNA had both enzyme function and an
information transfer function.
• Some RNA’s—called ribozymes—have
catalytic (enzymatic) functions today.
figure [Link]
RNA - can
fold up
and function
as enzyme
Figure 25.4
Protobionts: Enclosing
Prebiotic Systems
• DNA probably evolved after RNA-
based life became surrounded by
membranes that provided an
environment in which DNA was stable.
Photosynthesis Is the Source
of Atmospheric O2
Cyanobacteria, first evolved
photosynthesis...the ability to split
water into hydrogen ions and O2,
creating atmospheric O2
O2 in the atmosphere made possible the
evolution of aerobic metabolism
Ozone layer develops
Bacterial mats
Stromatolites
some of the oldest fossils-
3.5 billion years!
The Origin and History of Life on Earth
• What Is a Species?
Species Are Groups of Interbreeding
Populations
Appearance Can Be Misleading
Allopatric and sympatric speciation
Geographic Separation of a Population
Can Lead to Allopatric Speciation
Ecological Isolation of a Population Can
Lead to Sympatric Speciation
How Do New Species Form?
• Changes in Chromosome Number Can Lead to Sympatric Speciation
Speciation by polyploidy
• Change Over Time Within a Species Can Cause Apparent “Speciation” in the
Fossil Record
• Under Some Conditions, Many New Species May Arise
How Is Reproductive Isolation Between
Species Maintained?
• Premating Isolating Mechanisms Prevent Mating Between Species
Members of Different Species May Be Prevented from Meeting
Different Species May Occupy Different Habitats (Ecological
isolation)
• Different Species May Breed at Different Times (Temporal Isolation)
• Different Species May Have Different Courtship Rituals
Species’ Differing Sexual Organs May Foil Mating Attempts
• Postmating Isolating Mechanisms Limit Hybrid Offspring
One Species’ Sperm May Fail To Fertilize Another Species’ Eggs
Hybrid Offspring May Survive Poorly
Hybrid Offspring May Be Infertile
What Causes Extinction?
• Localized Distribution and Overspecialization make Species
Vulnerable in Changing Environments
• Very localized distribution can endanger a species
• Extreme specialization places species at risk
• Interactions with Other Organisms May Drive a Species to Extinction
• Habitat Change and Destruction Are the Leading Causes of
Extinction
• Natural events, of geological or extraterrestrial origin, can cause
sudden, and extremely catastrophic, extinctions on a large, or even
global, basis.
What Were the Earliest Organisms Like?
• The First Organisms Were Anaerobic Prokaryotes
• Some Organisms Evolved the Ability to Capture the Sun’s Energy
• Photosynthesis Increased the Amount of Oxygen in the Atmosphere
• Aerobic Metabolism Arose in Response to the Oxygen Crisis
• Some Organisms Acquired Membrane-Enclosed Organelles
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts May Have Arisen from
Engulfed Bacteria
Evidence for the Endosymbiont Hypothesis Is Strong
Symbiosis Within a Modern Cell
• The ancestors of the chloroplasts in today's plant cells may have
resembled Chlorella, the green, photosynthetic, single-celled algae
living symbiotically within the cytoplasm of the Paramecium pictured
here.
The Probable Origin of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts in Eukaryotic Cells
What Were the Earliest Multicellular
Organisms Like?
• Some Algae Became Multicellular
Higher organisms with differentiated cells evolved more than 1
billion years ago
• Animal Diversity Arose in the Precambrian Era
Original animal forms were primarily aquatic shelled invertebrates
(ocean dwellers), dating back to the Proterozoic (pre-Cambrian)
era, more than 600 million years ago.
• Life Invaded the Land beginning in the Cambrian Era
Land plants began in the Cambrian era, about 500 million years ago
Oxygen content of the atmosphere reached near-current levels in
the Devonian era, beginning nearly 400 million years ago
Land animals date back to the Devonian era, about 350 million
years ago.
Diversity of Ocean Life during the Silurian Period
• (a) Life characteristic of the oceans during the Silurian period, 440 million to
410 million years ago. Among the most common fossils from that time are (b)
trilobites and their predators, such as nautiloids and (c) ammonites. This (d)
living Nautilus is very similar in structure to the Silurian nautiloids, showing that
a successful body plan may exist virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of
years.
How Did Life Invade the Land?
•Some Plants Became Adapted to Life on Dry Land
•Primitive Land Plants Retained Swimming Sperm and Required
Water to Reproduce
•Seed Plants Encased Sperm in Pollen Grains
•Flowering Plants Enticed Animals to Carry Pollen
•Some Animals Became Adapted to Life on Dry Land
•Amphibians Evolved from Lobefin Fishes
•Reptiles Evolved from Amphibians
•Reptiles Gave Rise to Both Birds and Mammals
A Fish that Walks on Land
• Some modern fishes, such as this mudskipper, walk
on land. Like the ancient lobefin fishes that gave
rise to amphibians, mudskippers use their strong
pectoral fins to move across dry areas in their
swampy habitats.
What Role Has Extinction Played in
the History of Life?
• Evolutionary History Has Been Marked by Periodic Mass
Extinctions
• Climate Change Contributed to Mass Extinctions
• Catastrophic Events May Have Caused the Worst Mass
Extinctions
• The extinction of the Dinosaurs has recently been determined
to have been caused by an asteroid impact with the Earth
about 65 million years ago
• There is evidence of an even more catastrophic extinction
event further back in Earth’s history (about 300 million years
ago)
Continental Drift from Plate Tectonics
• The continents are passengers on plates moving on Earth's surface as a
result of plate tectonics.
• (a) About 340 million years ago, much of what is now North America
was positioned at the equator.
• (b) All the plates eventually fused together into one gigantic landmass,
which geologists call Pangaea.
• (c) Gradually Pangaea broke up into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, which
itself eventually broke up into West and East Gondwana.
• (d) Further plate motion eventually resulted in the modern positions of
the continents.
Evolution of the Earth with Time: Continental Drift
200 Million Years Ago
50 Million Years Ago
150 Million Years Ago
100 Million Years Ago Present
How Did Humans Evolve?
• Some Early Primate Adaptations for Life in Trees Were
Inherited by Humans
• Binocular Vision Provided Early Primates with Accurate Depth
Perception
• Early Primates Had Grasping Hands
• A Large Brain Facilitated Hand–Eye Coordination and Complex
Social Interactions
• The Oldest Hominid Fossils Are from Africa
How Did Humans Evolve?
• The Earliest Australopithecines Could Stand and Walk Upright
• Several Species of Australopithecus Emerged in Africa
• The Genus Homo Diverged from the Australopithecines 2.5
Million Years Ago
• The Evolution of Homo Was Accompanied by Advances in
Tool Technology
• Neanderthals Had Large Brains and Excellent Tools
How Did Humans Evolve?
• Modern Humans Emerged Only 150,000 Years Ago
• Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals Lived Side by Side
• Several Waves of Hominids Emigrated from Africa. The Evolutionary
Origin of Large Brains May Be Related to Meat Consumption
• The Evolutionary Origin of Human Behavior Is Highly Speculative
• The Cultural Evolution of Humans Now Far Outpaces Biological
Evolution
Representative Primates
• The (a) tarsier, (b) lemur, and (c) lion-tail
macaque monkey all have relatively flat faces,
with forward-looking eyes providing binocular
vision. All also have color vision and grasping
hands. These features, retained from the earliest
primates, are shared by humans.
The earliest hominid
• This nearly complete skull of Sahelanthropus tchadensis,
which is more than 6 million years old, is the oldest
hominid fossil yet found.
Representative hominid tools
• (a) Homo habilis produced only fairly crude chopping tools
called hand axes, usually unchipped on one end to hold in the
hand. (b) Homo ergaster manufactured tools that were typically
sharp all the way around the stone; at least some of these
blades were probably tied to spears rather than held in the
hand. (c) Neanderthal tools were works of art, with extremely
sharp edges made by flaking off tiny bits of stone. In comparing
these weapons, note the progressive increase in the number of
flakes taken off the blades and the corresponding decrease in
flake size. Smaller, more numerous flakes produce a sharper
blade and suggest either more insight into tool making, more
patience, finer control of hand movements, or perhaps all three.
Paleolithic Burial
• This 24,000-year-old grave shows evidence that CroMagnon people ritualistically
buried their dead.
• The body was covered with a dye known as red ocher, then buried wearing a
headdress made of snail shells and with a flint tool in its hand.
Competing Hypotheses for the Evolution of Homo Sapiens
• The "multiregional" hypothesis suggests that populations of H. sapiens evolved in
many regions simultaneously from the already widespread populations of H.
erectus.
Does Life Exist Elsewhere in
the Universe?
• Conditions that permit the evolution of
single-celled prokaryotic life may be
widespread in the universe!!!
Does Life Exist Elsewhere in
the Universe?
• Landings at Roswell, New Mexico?
Does Life Exist Elsewhere in
the Universe?
• But, multicellular life is probably
rare.... more stringent requirements.
planet with a relatively circular orbit
a rapid rate of spin
nearby planets that intercept
impacts
large moon that stabilizes the
planet’s orbit
Does Life Exist Elsewhere in
the Universe?
• Although conditions on Earth have
fluctuated greatly, they have been
suitable for multicellular organisms for
nearly a billion years.
• i.e., 1,000,000,000 years...
figure [Link]
Figure 25.2
Need Text Description
The Origin of Life on Earth
How Can We Study a Unique Event that Happ
ened Several Billion Years Ago?
Necessary Conditions for the Origin of Life
Protobionts: Enclosing Prebiotic Systems
Photosynthesis Is the Source of Atmospheric
O
2
Is Life Evolving from Nonlife Today?
Does Life Exist Elsewhere in the Universe?
How Can We Study a Unique
Event that Happened Several
Billion Years Ago?
• Universe - 13 billion years ago
• Earth - 4.5 b.y.
• Life - ~ 4 b.y.
figure [Link]
Figure 25.6
Figure 25.6
Did Microspheres Enclose the Earliest Cells?
• Cell-like microspheres can be formed by agitating proteins and lipids
in a liquid medium. Each microsphere in this photo is about 5
micrometers (µm) in diameter.
The Relationship between Time and the Decay of
Radioactive 40K (yellow) to 40Ar (blue)