CS601: Microprocessor &

Interfacing : UNIT 2
 X86 Programming model
• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) : the definition of the
registers and instructions that define the programmer’s view
of a processor
• Can have different implementations of the same ISA
– Intel and AMD processors both execute the x86 ISA, but internally are
very different!!
– Intel has several different implementations of the x86 ISA!
• New versions of an ISA extend the previous version by adding
instructions, registers – but never invalidate the old ISA

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 Intel x86 Microprocessors
8086 - 20 bit Addr. Bus - 1MB of Memory
80286 - 24 Addr. Bus - Added Protection Mode
80386 - 32 bit regs/busses - Virtual 86 Mode
80486 - RISC Core - L1 Cache - FPU
Pentium - Superscalar - Dual Pipeline - Split L1 Cache
Pentium Pro - L2 Cache - Branch Pred. - Speculative Exec.
Pentium MMX - 57 Instructions - Integrated DSP (MMX)
Pentium II - 100 MHz Bus - L2 Cache - MMX
Celeron - 66 MHz Bus - True L2 Cache Integration
Pentium III - 100 MHz Bus - 70 Internet Streaming SIMD Ext.

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 8086 Register File
7 0 7 0

Accumulator AH AL AX
Base BH BL BX
Counter CH CL CX
Data DH DL DX
15 0
Code Segment CS
Data Segment DS
Stack Segment SS
Extra Segment ES
15 0
Instruction Pointer }
IP
Stack Pointer
Base Pointer
SP
BP }
Source Index
Destination Index
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SI
DI
Arvind Shrivastava
} 4
 8086 Register File Contd..
Instruction Pointer Register
15 0

• IP Contains Address of NEXT Instruction to be

Fetched
– Automatically Incremented
– Programmer can control with jump and
branch

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 AX, BX, CX, DX
• General Purpose Registers
7 0 7 0

Accumulator AH AL AX
Base BH BL BX
Counter CH CL CX
Data DH DL DX

• Can Be Used Separately as 1-byte Registers

AX = AH:AL
• Temporary Storage to Avoid Memory Access
– Faster Execution
– Avoids Memory Access
• Some Special uses for Certain Instructions
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 AX, BX, CX, DX - Some Specialized Uses
• AX, Accumulator
– Main Register for Performing Arithmetic
– mult/div must use AH, AL
– “accumulator” Means Register with Simple ALU
• BX, Base
– Point to Translation Table in Memory
– Holds Memory Offsets; Function Calls
• CX, Counter
– Index Counter for Loop Control
• DX, Data
– After Integer Division Execution - Holds Remainder

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 CS, DS, ES, SS - Segment Registers
Contains “Base Value” for Memory Address

CS, Code Segment

Used to “point” to Instructions
Determines a Memory Address (along with IP)
Segmented Address written as CS:IP

DS, Data Segment

Used to “point” to Data
Determines Memory Address (along with other registers)
ES, Extra Segment allows 2 Data Address Registers

SS, Stack Segment

Used to “point” to Data in Stack Structure (LIFO)
Used with SP or BP
SS:SP or SS:BP are valid Segmented Addresses

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 IP, SP, BP, SI, DI - Offset Registers
Contains “Index Value” for Memory Address

IP, Instruction Pointer

Used to “point” to Instructions
Determines a Memory Address (along with CS)
Segmented Address written as CS:IP

SI, Source Index; DI, Destination Index

Used to “point” to Data
Determines Memory Address (along with other registers)
DS, ES commonly used

SP, Stack Pointer; BP, Base Pointer

Used to “point” to Data in Stack Structure (LIFO)
Used with SS
SS:SP or SS:BP are valid Segmented Addresses

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 INSTRUCTION SET OF 8086
Classified into 7 categories
1] Data Transfer
2] Arithmetic
3] Logical
4] Control
5]Processor Control Instructions
6] String Manipulation
7] Interrupt Control

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 Data Transfer Instructions
Note: Data Transfer Instructions do not affect any flags
1] MOV dest, src
Note that source and destination can not be memory
location. Also source and destination must be same
type.
2] PUSH Src: Copies word on stack.
3] POP dest: Copies word from stack into dest. Reg.
4] INacc, port : Copies 8 or 16 bit data from port to
accumulator. a) Fixed Port b) Variable Port
5] OUTport,acc

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Data Transfer Instructions Contd…
6] LESReg, Mem: Load register and extra segment
register with words from memory.
7] LDSReg,Mem: Load register and data segment
register with words from memory.
8] LEAReg,Src: load Effective address. (Offset is loaded
in specified register)
9] LAHF: Copy lower byte of flag register into AH
register.
10] SAHF: Copy AH register to lower byte of flag
register

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Data Transfer Instructions Contd…
11] XCHG dest, src: Exchange contains of source
and destination.
12] XLAT: Translate a byte in AL. This instruction
replaces the byte in AL with byte pointed by
[Link] point desired byte in look up table
instruction adds contains of BX with AL ( BX+
AL). Goes to this location and loads into AL.

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 Arithmetic Instructions
1]ADD dest,src
2] ADC dest,src: Add with carry
3] AAA : ASCII adjust after addition. We can add
two ASCII numbers directly and use AAA after
addition so as to get result directly in BCD.
(Works with AL only)
4] DAA : Decimal adjust accumulator. ( Works
with AL only)
5] SUB dest, src
6] SBB dest, src: Subtract with borrow.
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 Arithmetic Instructions Contd …
7] AAS: ASCII adjust for subtraction ( Same as AAA
and works with AL only)
8] DAS : Decimal adjust after Subtraction. (Works
with AL only)
9] MUL src
10 ] IMULsrc: Multiplication of signed byte.
11] AAM: BCD adjust after multiply. ( Works with
AL only)
12]DIV src
If any one attempts to divide by 0 , then ?
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 Arithmetic Instructions Contd …
13] IDIV: Division of signed numbers
14]AAD: BCD to Binary convert before Division.
15] DEC dest
16] INCdest
17] CWD: Convert signed word to signed double
word.
18] CBW : Convert signed byte to signed word.
( CBW and CWD works only with AL,AX and DX
registers.)
• 19] NEG dest: Forms Twos complement.
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 Logical Instructions
1] AND dest,src
2] NOT dest: Invert each bit in destination
3] OR dest, src
4] XOR dest, src
5] RCL dest, count : Rotate left through Carry If rotate once
count is directly specified in the instruction. For more no. of
rotations count is specified in CL register.
6] RCR dest, count : Rotate right through carry
7] ROL dest, count : Rotate left (into carry as well as into LSB)
8] ROR dest, count : Rotate left (into carry as wellas into MSB)

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 Logical Instructions Contd…
9] SAL/ SHL dest, count : Shift left and put 0in LSB.
10] SAR dest,count : Shift right New MSB = Old MSB
11]SHR dest,count : Shift right .MSB is filled with 0’s.
12] TEST dest,src: AND logically,updates flags but
source and destare unchanged.
13] CMP dest,src
CF, ZF and SF are used Ex .CMP CX,BX
CF ZF SF
CX = BX 0 1 0
CX > BX 0 0 0
CX < BX 1 0 1

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 Control transfer Instructions
1]CALL : Call a procedure - Two types of calls
i) Near Call ( Intrasegment)
ii) Far Call ( Intersegment)
2] RET : Return execution from procedure
3] JMP : Unconditional Jump to specified destination.
Two types near and Far
4] JA / JNBE: Jump if above / Jump if not below
• The terms above and below are used when we
refer to the magnitude of Unsigned number . Used
normally after CMP.
5]JAE / JNB / JNC
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 Control Transfer Inst. Contd…
6] JB / JC / JNAE
7] JBE / JNA
8] JE/ JZ
9]JCXZ: Jump if CX is Zero.
10] JG / JNLE: Jump if Greater /Jump if not less than or
equal. The term greater than or less than is used in
connection with two signed numbers.
• 11] JGE / JNL:
• 12] JL / JNGE :
• 13] JLE / JNG :
• 14]JNE / JNZ :
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 Control Transfer Inst. Contd…
15] JNO : Jump if no overflow
16] JNS :Jump if no sign
17] JS
18] JO
19] JNP / JPO
20] JP / JPE
In all above conditional instructions the
destination of jump is in the range of -128 to +
127 bytes from the address after jump.

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 Control Transfer Inst. Contd…
21] LOOP: Loop to the specified label if CX not equal
to Zero. The count is loaded in CX reg. Every time
LOOP is executed then CX is automatically
decremented . ( Used in delay programs.)
22] LOOPE/ LOOPZ: Loop while CX not equal to zero
and ZF = 1.
23] LOOPNE / LOOPNZ: Loop while CX not equal to
zero and ZF = 0.
In all above LOOP instructions the destination of
jump is in the range of -128 to + 127 bytes from
the address after LOOP.
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 Processor Control
1] CLC: Clear Carry flag.
2] STC : Set carry Flag
3] CMC : Complement Carry Flag
4] CLD: Clear Direction Flag.
5] STD: Set Direction Flag
6] CLI : Clear Interrupt Flag.
7] STI : Set Interrupt Flag.
8] HLT: Halt Processing.

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 Processor Control Contd…

9] NOP : No Operation
10] ESC: Escape, Executed by Co-processors and
actions are performed according to 6 bit
coding in the instruction.
11] LOCK : Assert bus lock Signal, This is prefix
instruction.
12] WAIT :Wait for test or Interrupt Signal.
Assert wait states.

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 String Control
1] MOVS/ MOVSB/ MOVSW : Dest string name, src
string name. This inst moves data byte or word
from location in DS to location in ES.
2] REP / REPE / REPZ / REPNE / REPNZ: Repeat
string instructions until specified conditions exsist.
This is prefix instruction.
3] CMPS / CMPSB / CMPSW: Compare string bytes
or string words.
4] SCAS / SCASB / SCASW: Scan a string byte or
string word. Compares byte in AL or word in AX.
String address is to be loaded in DI.
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 String Control Contd…
5] STOS / STOSB / STOSW: Store byte or word in
a string. Copies a byte or word in AL or AX to
memory location pointed by DI.
6] LODS / LODSB /LODSW : Load a byte or word
in AL or AX Copies byte or word from memory
location pointed by SI into AL or AX register.

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 Interrupt Control

• 1]INT type
• 2] INTO Interrupt on overflow
• 3] IRET Interrupt return

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 Assembler Directives

1] ASSUME : Used to tell assembler the name of

logical segment. Ex. ASSUME CS: Code here
2] END
3] DB
4] DW
5] DD Define Double Word
6] DQ Define Quad Word
7] DT Define Ten Bytes
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 Assembler Directive Contd..
8] PROC Procedure : PROC DELAY NEAR
9] ENDP
10] ENDS
11] EQU
12] EVEN: Align on even memory address.
13] ORG
14] OFFSET: Ex MOV BX,Offset of Data Here
15] PTR Pointer
16] LABEL : Ex AGAIN LABEL FAR
17] EXTRN: Tells the assembler that the names or labels
following this directive is in some other assembly module.

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 Assembler Directive Contd..
18] PUBLIC : Links modules together
19] INCLUDE : Include source code from file.
20] NAME : To give specific name to module.
21] GROUP : Grouping of logical segments.
22] SEGMENT
23] SHORT : Operator that tells assembler about
short displacement.
24] TYPE : Type of variable whether byte or
word.
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 Data Transfer
• IN AL,0C8H ;Input a byte from port 0C8H to
;AL
• IN AX, 34H ;Input a word from port 34H to
• AXA_TO_D EQU 4AH
• IN AX, A_TO_D ;Input a word from port ;4AH to AX
• MOV DX, 0FF78H ;Initialize DX point to port
• IN AL, DX ;Input a byte from a 8 bit port
;0FF78H to AL
• IN AX, DX ;Input a word from 16 bit port to
;0FF78H to AX.

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 Arithmetic Instruction
• EXAMPLE:
• ADD AL,74H ;Add immediate number 74H
;to content of AL
• ADC CL,BL ;Add contents of BL plus
;carry status to contents of CL. ;Results in CL
• ADD DX, BX ;Add contents of BX to
;contents of DX
• ADD DX, [SI] ;Add word from memory at
;offset [SI] in DS to contents of DX

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 Logical instruction
• OR op1, op2
• OR AH, CL ;CL ORed with AH, result in AH.
;CX = 00111110 10100101
• OR CX,FF00h ;OR CX with immediate FF00h
;result in CX = 1111111110100101
;Upper byte are all 1’s lower bytes
;are unchanged
• ;DX =F038h
• NOT DX ;after the instruction DX = 0FC7h
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 Control transfer Instruction
• ;Direct within-segment - near
• CALL MULTO ;MULTO is the name ofthe
;procedure.

• ;Indirect within-segment -near

• CALL BX ; BX contains the offset of the first
instruction of the procedure .Replaces
contents of word of IP with contents o register
BX.

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 Control transfer contd..

• ;Direct to another segment- far

• CALL SMART ;SMART is the name of the
;Procedure
• SMART PROC FAR ; Procedure must be
;declared as an far
• RET Instruction – Return execution from
procedure to calling program

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Program to multiply two 16bit binary no. & give 32 bit result
;ABSTRACT This program multiplies two 16bit words in
the memory locations called MULTIPLICAND and
MULTIPLIER. Result is stored in memory location ,
PRODUCT.
;REGISTERS : Uses CS, DS, AX, DX
DATA_HERE SEGMENT
MULTIPLICAND DW 204AH ; first word here
MULTIPLIER DW 3B2AH ; second word here
PRDUCT DW 2 DUP(0) ; Result of multiplication here
DATA_HERE ENDS

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 Program Contd..
CODE_HERE SEGMENT
ASSUME CS:CODE_HERE, DS:DATA_HERE
START:MOV AX, DATA_HERE ;Initialize DS
MOV DS, AX ; register
MOV AX, MULTIPLICAND ; Get one word
MUL MULTIPLIER ; Multiply by 2nd word
MOV PRODUCT, AX ;Store low word of result
MOV PRODUCT+2, DX ; Store high word of result
INT 3 ; wait for command from user
CODE_HERE ENDS
END START
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 JUMP, FLAGS and conditional Jumps
• 8086 fetches next instruction from some new
location
• JMP always causes a jump to occur
• Loads a new no. into IP register
• Sometimes CS is also loaded with new no.
• Direct or indirect jump, destination address
• Program should be relocatable

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 Backward Jump
;ABSTRACT : This program illustrates a backward jump
;REGISTERS : Uses CS, AL
; PORTS : None
CODE SEGMENT
ASSUME CS:CODE
BACK: ADD AL, 03H
NOP
NOP
JMP BACK
CODE ENDS
END
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 Forward Jump
;ABSTRACT : Program illustrates forward jump
;REGISTERS : Uses CS, AX
;PORS : None
CODE SEGMENT
ASSUME CS: CODE
JMP THERE
NOP
NOP
THERE: MOV AX, 0000H
NOP
ENDS
END
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 8086 conditional flags
- Six conditional Flags: Carry Flag (CF), parity flag (PF),
auxiliary carry flag (AF), zero flag(ZF), sign flag(SF),
overflow flag(OF).
- Carry Flag is affected by ADD, SUB, AND , CMP
instructions

- CMP BX, CX
Condition CF ZF
CX > BX 1 0
CX<BX 0 0
CX=BX 0 1

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 Conditional flags contd..
• AF: DAA, DAS instructions
• ZF: INC, DEC, CMP inst.
• OF:ADD

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 Conditional Jump
• All conditional jump instructions are short-
type jumps.
• Destination address must be in the range -128
to +127
• Destination label must be in the same code
segment

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 Conditional jump contd..
JE /JZ ZF = 1 Jump if Equal or Jump if Zero (=)
JNE/JNZ ZF = 0 Jump if Not Equal or Jump if Not
Zero
Signed Comparisons
JG ZF = 0 and SF = 0 Jump if Greater than ( > )
JGE SF = 0 Jump if Greater than or Equal ( >= )
JL SF = 1 Jump if Less than ( < )
JLE ZF = 1 or SF = 1 Jump if Less than or Equal ( <=)

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 Conditional jump contd..
Unsigned Comparisons
JA ZF = 0 and CF = 0 Jump if Above ( > )
JAE CF = 0 Jump if Above or Equal ( >= )
JB CF = 1 Jump if Below ( < )
JBE ZF = 1 or CF = 1 Jump if Below or Equal ( <= )
Miscellaneous
JO OF = 1 Jump if Overflow, ditto for CF, SF &
PF
JNO OF = 0 Jump if No Overflow, ditto for CF, SF
& PF
JCXZ CX = 0 Jump if CX = 0
JECXZ ECX = 0 Jump if ECX = 0
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 IF-THEN
If <condition> THEN CMP AX,BX
action JE THERE
…… ADD AX, 0020H
THERE: MOV CL, 20H
CMP AX, BX
JNE FIX
JMP THERE
FIX: ADD AX, 0020H
THERE: MOV CL, 07H
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 IF-THEN-ELSE
READ TEMPERATURE
IF TEMPERATURE < 30 THEN
LIGHT YELLOW LAMP
ELSE
LIGHT GREEN LAMP
READ pH SENSOR

IF TEMPERATURE ≥ 30 THEN
LIGHT GREENLAMP
ELSE
LIGHT YELLOWLAMP
READ
SENSOR

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 IF-THEN-ELSE contd…
;ABSTRACT : this program reads the temp, if temp < 30, a
yellow lamp is lit, if temp is ≥ 30, a green lamp is lit
;REGISTERS : CS, AL, DX
;PORTS : FFF8H – temp I/P, FFFAH – Control O/P

CODE SEGMENT
ASSUME CS: CORE
; intialize port FFFAH as O/P and FFF8H as I/P
MOV DX, 0FFFEH ; point DX to port control regs
MOV AL, 99H ; Load control word to initialize ports
OUT DX, AL ; send control word to port control regs

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 IF-THEN-ELSE contd…
MOV DX, 0FFF8H ; point DX at I/P port
IN AL, DX ; read temp from sensor on I/P port
CMP AL, 30
JB YELLOW
JMP GREEN
YELLOW : MOV AL, 01H ; load code to light yellow
MOV DX, 0FFFAH ; point DX at O/P port
OUT DX, AL ; send code to light yellow lamp
JMP EXIT ; go to exit mainline instructions

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 IF-THEN-ELSE contd…
GREEN: MOV AL, 02H ; load code to light green
MOV DX, 0FFFAH ; point DX at O/P port
OUT DX, AL ; send code to light green lamp
EXIT : MOV DX, 0FFFCH ; next mainline inst
IN AL, DX ; read pH sensor
CODE ENDS
END

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 IF-THEN-ELSE contd…
ALGO (B)…..

CMP AL, 30 ; compare temp with 30

JAE GREEN ; if temp ≥ 30 then light green
JMP YELLOW ; ELSE light YELLOW
GREEN : MOV AL, 02H ; load code to light green
lamp
MOV DX, 0FFFAH ; point DX at O/P port
OUT DX, AL ; send code to light green
JMP EXIT ; go to next mainline instruction

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 IF-THEN-ELSE contd…
YELLOW: MOV AL, 01H ; Load code to light
yellow
MOV DX, 0FFFAH ; point DX at O/P port
OUT DX, AL ; send code to light yellow
EXIT : MOV DX, 0FFFCH ; next mainline instruction
IN AL, DX ; Read pH sensor
CODE ENDS
END

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 Think about

1. How high level language statements are

translated to 8086 instructions
2. How logical operations can be used to set and
clear bits
3. Execution/Implementation of IF-THEN, IF-
THEN-ELSE,REPEAT-UNTIL,LOOP,WHILE in
assembly language.

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