Engine Design

Ben Rossiter

Introduction
For this section we will be considering the
engine as two parts;
The lower part comprises of the cylinder
block and the rotating assembly
(Crankshaft, con-rods and pistons)
The upper part includes the cylinder head,
the valves and the valve drive system.

The Lower part

The function of the block and the rotating

assembly is to turn the pressure creating by
burning the fuel, into a mechanical output.

Q. Which parts make up the rotating

assembly?

The crankshaft, the connecting rods and

the pistons

The upper part

The job of the cylinder head and the valves

is to get air and fuel into the engine, burn it
at the right time and get rid of the burnt
gasses afterwards.

Mechanical output

We previously mentioned Mechanical

output. This needs to be considered as
both Torque and Power.

Torque
The average push provided by the engine.
It is the force applied at a given distance.
It is dependant upon;
1.
The amount of pressure (BMEP) which pushes
the piston down during the power stroke
2.
The time for which the pressure is applied
3.
The area of the piston and the stroke
4.
The compression ratio*, valve timing and engine
speed.
*Hence why Diesels have more Torque generally.

Torque Cont.

When the engine is running

at high speed there is less
time for pressure to develop.
Maximum torque occurs
between 1/3 1/2
Of most engines maximum
safe speed.
Porsche 911 GT3 Torque curve

Power
The rate at which the engine does work.
1. Work = Force x Distance
2. Power = (Force x Distance)/ Time
3. But Distance/ Time = Speed
For a car, this correlates to:
Power = Force (Torque) x Speed (Engine speed)
In real life car terms;
Max. Power vs. Aerodynamic Drag determines Max. Speed
Torque vs. Weight (influenced by gearing) determines the
acceleration

Power - cont

So it is strange that most drivers value

acceleration over maximum speed, but they
study power output figures over torque?!

Torque and Power

The balance between torque and power is

important in the I.C. Engine, as it develops
little torque when running slowly.
This must be considered throughout engine
design.

Lets look at an example of this in practice....

Torque and Power example

Consider an engine designed for good
torque output, with max. torque @ low
speed i.e. 2500rpm
Compared to;
A peak power speed of 6000rpm with max.
safe speed of 7000rpm.

Q. How will the performance of the

engines be different?

The First example will be more flexible, pulling

more willingly from low speed and needing less
gear changing.
Engines designed for high power will provide
better performance (if the driver is willing to use
the gearbox) keeping engine speed close to
peak power.

Compromise

We now see a need for compromise, in

order to achieve a specific output (Highly flexible,
low speed torque or high performance with relatively weak low speed
performance)

Or, of course, try to achieve the best of both

worlds; The British imperial units were well
balanced, their max. Torque in pounds feet
being almost the same as the max. Power in
bhp.

Adjusting the Balance

The balance of power and torque is achieved by

increasing the maximum amount of power delivered by
the engine (a lot easier than increasing the torque*)
This is because the power developed by an engine
depends above all on the rate at which it can burn fuel,
than in turn depending on how fast the air can be
sucked in and expelled, which depends on the speed
of the engine and the size of the ducts and valves.

*Except for what?

Engine Speed and its effect on power

In very round terms, Formula 1 racing

teams recon than running an engine
1000rpm faster is worth another 50bhp.
(This of course put immense amounts of
wear around the cylinders and piston rings
and as such Formula 1 engines are only
ever used twice before being rebuilt.)

Induction and exhaust

High losses are incurred during the induction

of air and push out exhaust gasses.
This sees a need for consideration of
thermodynamics, in terms of how the gasses
will flow through the engine;
Inlet and exhaust manifolds, inlet and
exhaust ports and combustion chambers
must be considered during design.

The Combustion Chamber

Windage losses occur through internal air

movements in the engine, other than those
which take place inside the combustion
chamber. For example;
Q. When the piston is descending during the
induction stroke, what happens to the air
beneath the piston?
A. It has to transfer to the space beneath one of the
other pistons which is ascending on its power stroke.

Combustion Chamber Designs 1

Spark Ignition designs

(Petrol)

1. Wedge
The valves are inclined being
positioned on the wide slope
of the wedge, the spark plug
is fitted at the thick end of the
wedge. The gases expand
towards the thin end into a
large cooler surface area.

Combustion Chambers Designs 2

2. Hemispherical
The valves are larger
inclined and fitted across
the engine. The plug is
positioned as near centre
as possible.
This shape provides
maximum volume with
minimum surface area

Combustion Chambers Designs 3

3. Bowl in Piston
The cylinder head is flat
and the valves are
positioned vertically.
The combustion chamber
being formed in the piston
crown, the shape being
free from sharp edges.

Q. State Advantages of a
hemispherical combustion chamber

The Hemispherical combustion chamber will

give improved efficiency in the cylinder
through gas-flow improvement.
Combustion radiates evenly, completely
burning the air/fuel mixture.
Improved value dimensions, i.e. maximum
volume with minimum surface area.

Performance Characteristics

In order to obtain strong, low speed torque you need

a fast flow of air going into the combustion chamber.
A narrow inlet port must therefore be used in order to
obtain maximum gas flow.
By adding features which allow changing the size and shape
of the passages you can achieve ranging performance
capabilities; some engines use 2 inlet valves per cylinder, with
it being possible to shut off one of them at low speed, opening
it only when the power requirement is high enough (High
engine RPM.)

Performance Characteristics

For maximum power, the engine must pass

as much air and fuel mixture as possible
through itself in the shortest possible time.
Therefore the larger the valves and the
deeper they open, the more mixture can
enter the combustion chamber as long as
the rest of the intake system doesnt restrict
the flow!

Timing the Engine

Engine timing can also have an effect upon

the induction and exhaust;
When the throttle is nearly closed, the induction stroke of
the piston is not only sucking in air, but also reducing the
air pressure in the whole of the inlet manifold, meaning
the induction stroke itself consumes more power. The
closer the throttle valve is to the inlet port, the more
severe this effect becomes, which is the reason why
modern petrol engines have seemingly complicated inlet
manifolds with long air ducts.

Diesel Efficiency

Diesels don't have throttle valves, so at

part-load their pumping losses are less.
This is one reason for a diesels higher efficiency.

Q. What is the other?

A. The higher compression ratio

The Upper Part of the engine

The following slides will consider the major

aspects of the cylinder head.

The Cylinder Head

The cylinder head bolts onto the top of the cylinder block where it
forms the top of the combustion chamber.
In-line engines of light vehicles have just one cylinder head for all
the cylinders. Larger in-line engines can have 2 or more.
V-type and horizontally-opposed engines have a separate cylinder
head for each bank of cylinders.
Just as with engine blocks, cylinder heads can be made of cast
iron, or aluminium alloy.
A head made of aluminium alloy is lighter than if it were made of
cast iron. Aluminium also conducts heat away more quickly than
iron. So with an aluminium-alloy head, the heat of combustion can
be conducted away into the coolant more quickly.
Manufacturing the head is similar to manufacturing the block. A
casting mold is made. Sand cores are put in to form any hollow
areas. Depending on the engine, these can be for coolant and
lubricant passages, and inlet and exhaust ports.

Cylinder Head (2 Valve)

Water jacket holes match Cylinder Block.

Combustion chamber for each cylinder.
Intake valves.
Exhaust valves slightly smaller.

Next >

Cylinder Head (4 Valve)

Many different engine designs.

Aluminium type
cylinder head.

Four-valve design.
Differing combustion
chamber designs.
Next >

Cylinder Head Components

Bare cylinder head
holds many parts.

Rocker arms
Cotters
Retainers

Seals

Pivots
Springs

Valve mounts.

Valve openers.
Bare cylinder
head

Push rods

Valves.
Valves

Next >

Valves and Valve Seats

Valve seats in cylinder head

In some cast-iron cylinder heads, the seats are

cut directly into the edge of the valve port. These
valve seat areas are machined from the metal of
the cylinder head. In some engines, the valve
seat area is hardened during manufacture.
In others, hard metal valve seat inserts are
pressed into the machined holes. Valve seat
inserts are metal rings that match the shape of
the valve. They are usually made of an iron alloy.
They are used in aluminium cylinder heads to
provide a sealing surface for seating the valve.

Valve Construction Poppet or Mushroom

Valve

seats are often ground to the

same angle as the valve face, but they
can differ. The difference is called an
interference angle. An interference angle
allows for a quick bedding-in of the valve
face to the seat on new engines. It may
also allow for slight changes in angle as
a valve heats and expands.

Seat angle

The

faces of the valve are ground

at an angle of 45 degrees or 30
degrees. Some engines use 30
degrees or 45 degrees face angles
for inlet valves, and 45 degrees for
exhaust valves.
The valve stem is precision
ground to suit guide. (tight
tolerance)
Next >

Changing Times (Fuel)

Leaded fuels used to leave a deposit on the

valve that protected the valve seats. With
unleaded petrol /gasoline, however this
deposit doesnt occur, and therefore all cast
iron heads are now using unleaded fuel and
have hardened valve seats.

Inlet Valve

Exhaust Valves
Exhaust has higher temperatures.

Thicker
stem

Thicker stem.

Hollow-stem type.

Metallic sodium for cooling.

Sodium becomes liquid

during operation and the heat
transfer aides cooling.
Next >

Valve Seals
Keep oil out of
combustion chamber.

Umbrella seals.

O-ring seals.

Spring shield.

Valve stem

Next >

Valve Oil Seals and Springs

Valve Springs and Valve Bounce

The springs usually have their coils closer at the bottom than the
top; This makes different parts of the spring vibrate at different
frequencies, and prevents wasteful valve spring vibration.
Springs can also be made of wire with an especially shaped strong
section that limits valve bounce.
A duel coil spring assembly also helps to eliminate valve bounce; a
condition where the springs resonate at high engine speed (causing
them to open again after they have closed losing pressure and
therefore Torque.)
Unless the valve is held on its seat, it also allows leakage from the
combustion chamber. Carbon builds up on the valve stem.

Dual Coil Spring Assembly

Increases valve closing pressure. Cotters
Cotters and spring retainer.
Outer spring.
Inner spring.
Oil seal.
Spring seat.

Next >

Valve Guides
Integral valve guide is cheaper.

Clearance hole is machined in.

Pressed-in guide of cast iron or bronze.

Simplifies valve guide repair.

Valve seats may also be pressed-in type.

Seat
insert
Next >

Camshaft
Controls opening and
closing of valves.
Cams

Made from forged steel.

Belt or chain driven.

Consists of a number of
cams (lobes) and journals.

Journals

Next >

The Camshaft

Camshaft and lobes

Cam Operation
Cams open and close valves.

Nose

As the camshaft rotates, cam

pushes the valve open.

Duration
Lift
Exhaust

Intake valves on one side,

exhaust on the other.
Intake

Next >

Question
The diagram shows a cam. What is the pointed part called?

A) The face
B) The nose
C) The beak
D) The eye

Camshaft Locations

Cam Followers - Tappets

Basic mechanical cam follower.
Rocker arm

Hydraulic cam follower.

Zero valve clearance (lash).
Push
rod
Cam
follower

Hydraulic
cam
follower

Cam lobe

Next >

Cam Follower Types

Solid follower.

Hydraulic follower.

Roller follower.

Cup type follower.

Next >

Rocker Arms
Cast or pressed
steel construction.

Transfers push-rod
motion to valve.

Valve clearance is known as

lash adjustment.

Next >

The Valve Train

Overhead Valve (OHV)

AKA Cam-in-Block.

Rocker arm

Common in earlier engines.

Uses Valve follower, push rod

and rocker arm.

Push
rod

Valve
follower

Next >

OHV Gear Assembly

1. Rocker shaft retaining
bolt
2. Pushrod
3. Lubrication passages
4. Exhaust valve assembly
5. Camshaft bearing
journal
6. Camshaft lobe
7. Hydraulic tappet
8. Turbulence ramp
9. Inlet valve assembly
10. Rocker arm

Overhead Cam (OHC)

Camshaft in cylinder head.
Uses cup type follower.
May have separate camshafts for intake and exhaust valves.

Next >

SOHC Layout examples

DOHC Layout example

1. Idler pulley
2. Tensioning pulley
3. Drive belt
4. Inlet camshaft
5. Inlet valves
6. Exhaust camshaft
7. Exhaust valves

Valve Timing diagrams

Variable valve timing

Variable Cam Timing (VCT)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Camshaft Timing Pulley

Spring
Outer Helical Teeth
Adaptor with ring grooves
Oil supply to front chamber
Oil supply to rear chamber
Rear chamber
Front chamber
Blanking plug with seal
Inner Helical teeth