The Measurement of Distance

By
Dr P.K. GARG

Introduction
One of the fundamentals of surveying is the
need to measure distance.
Distances are not necessarily linear,
especially if they occur on the spherical earth.

Types of Distance Measurement

Types of Distance Measurement

Types of Distance Measurement

Example

Example

How about this very uneven case or high accuracy is required?

7

Distance Measurement
D is ta n c e M e a s u re m e n t
D ire c t
(le n g th m e a s u re m e n t)
e g m e a s u rin g ta p e

In d ire c t
(d is ta n c e m e a s u re m e n t)

G e o m e tric a l
(O p tic a l)

E le c tro n ic
(W a ve P h y s ic s )
8

Measuring Devices

Guessing
Pacing
Knotted bits of rope
The Surveyors Chain
Measuring tapes
Steel measuring bands
Optical rangefinders
Odometers
Tacheometry (stadia or subtense Bar)
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) Devices
Total Station Equipment
RADAR
Laser based equipment
Global Positioning System (GPS)
9

Distance
Traditionally, long distance measurement was
difficult
So it was generally avoided

Distance measurement on undulating land

was tedious, distance at sea was even more.
Developments in modern equipment using
electronics revolutionized the process.

10

Applications
Measurement of land boundaries
Dimensions, areas are computed using length
measurements

Topographic mapping
Engineering construction
The lay-out of structures
The monitoring of structures

11

Determining Angles Taping

B

Lay off distance AP

Establish QP AP
Measure distance QP

Compute angle

PQ

tan

AP
1

Need to: measure angle at point A

12

Determining Angles Taping

B
D
A

Lay off distance AD

Lay off distance AE = AD
Measure distance DE
Compute angle

E
C

sin(0.5 )

DE
2( AD)

Need to: measure angle at point A

13

Determining Angles Taping

Measure distance AB
Measure distance AC
Measure distance BC

Compute angle

2
2
2

AC

AB

BC
1

cos

2(
AC
)(
AB
)

Need to: measure angle at point A

14

Determining Angles Taping

Lay off distance d either side of X
Swing equal lengths (l)
Connect point of intersection and X
l

X
d

Need to: measure 90 angle at point X

15

Measurement Accuracy
Pacing
Accuracy 1 : 100

Taping
Accuracy 1 : 10,000

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

Accuracy 1 : 10,000 to 1:100,000

16

The Pharaoh's tax collectors

17

Pacing
Practical measure of distance.
Don't try to pace out one metre with every step.
Walk casually over 100 m counting the number of
steps. Work out the length of a casual step and use
this instead.
Varies with uphill, downhill, and your age.
Low accuracy
No equipment needed
18

Odometer
Measuring wheels

19

20

Gunters Chain
Invented in year 1620
Comprised of 100 links
Subject to wear & tear
But used for centuries

21

Force applied
Hook to the tape

Chain

22

The Surveyors Band

Made from steel, marked every whole unit
only.

23

The Surveyors Band

24

Taping (or Chaining)

Chainage is applied to
measurement with a tape.
All standard in lengths
100 m, 50m, 30 m, 20 m.
It is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and hence is the most
common form of distance measurement.
Unfortunately, chainage is prone to errors and mistakes.
For high accuracy, steel tape should be used which is
graduated in mm and calibrated under standard temp
(20 degree) and tension (5kg). Be careful, easily break.
25
Synthetic tape is more flexible graduated in 10mm

The Stylon tape

26

Taping Procedures

27

Accessories

28

Taping Procedures
Ranging rods set up between points A and B
Set zero of tape at A
Unwound tape towards B
A third range rod is ranged in at C
Tape straightened, held tight and read at rod C
Point C marked with a pin
For next bay, tape moved from A and zero set
at C and so on
29

Length AB = 4 x Full tape distance + 1 Short section

REMEMBER ! It works only on smooth ground or uniform slope surfaces
30

 Types of Chains
1. Metric chain
2. Gunters /Surveyor chain
20m - 5mm
3. Engineers chain
30m - 8 mm
4. Revenue chain or cadastral
length 2mm
5. Steel Band or Band chain
Tension 8kg
Temp 20 C
Metric Chain 5,10, 20 and 30m
30m 150 links
Tallies are fixed at every 5m.
Brass rings are provided at very 1m.
Gunters Chain
66 ft long with 100 links
10 square chain = 1 Acre
10 chains = one Furlong
80 chain = one mile

20m 100 links

31

 Engineers chain
100 ft long with 100 links
Tallies are fixed at every 10 links
Revenue chain
33ft 16 links each links
Steel Band
width 12-16 mm, thickness 0.3 - 0.6 mm length 20m,
graduated at 20cm. First & last link subdivided into cm
and mm, very accurate
32

CHAIN

STEEL BAND

1. Suffer wear & tear

1. Gets broken by twist or

bull

2. Easily repaired at site

2. Needs soldering for repair

3. Can be distinctly read

3. Can not be read easily

after constant usage

4. Heavier, not easy to

spread

4. Lighter, easy to open

5. Changes length over time

5. Maintains its length

6. Sags due to its weight

6. Does not sag much

33

 Tapes
1. Cloth or linen Tape
2. Metallic and glass fiber plastic Tape
3. Steel Tape
4. Invar Tape
Cloth Tape
width 12 15 mm, varnished length 10, 20, 25 and 30m.
Affected by moisture, pull, twist
Metallic Tape
width 12 15 mm
length 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, & 50 m varnished strip of linen interwoven with thin
copper wires
Glass fiber glass fibers woven
Steel Tape
quite accurate width 6 10mm
length 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, 30, and 50 m. Needs great care

34

 Invar Tape
High accuracy, width 6mm alloy of nickel 36% and steel Low
Coeff. of Expansion (1/10th of steel).
ARROWS steel wire 4mm dia. 25 50 mm length
PEGS made of stout timber, 2.5-3 cm square 15cm long
RANGING RODS 2 3 m long, dia 3 cm Painted in bands of
20 cm To have greater visibility >200m square Flag 50 cm
are tied

35

RADAR
Developed during World War II
Deployed soon after for geodetic distance
measurement

36

RADAR

37

MODERN EQUIPMENT

EDM

38

Laser
Distance
Meter

39

Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) Device

Developed after World War II from advances
in RADAR.
Revolutionised surveying and mapping
Before, distance was measured manually or
calculated from triangulation

40

EDM = Electronic Distance Measuring

First introduced in the late 1950s

At first they were complicated, large, heavy, and suited primarily for
long distances
Current EDMs use either infrared (light waves) or microwaves (radio
waves)
Microwaves require transmitters/receivers at both ends
Infrared use a transmitter at one end and a reflecting prism at the
other end.
They come in long (20-50 km), medium (3-20 km), and short range (0.53 km).
They are typically mounted on top of a theodolite, but can be mounted
directly to a tribrach.

41

EDM Classifications
Described by form of electromagnetic energy.
First instruments were primarily microwave (1950)
Present instruments are some form of light, i.e. laser or nearinfrared lights.

Described by range of operation.

Generally microwave are 20 - 50 km range. (Long)
(Lower accuracy)
Developed in the early 70s, and were used for control surveys.

Light EDMs generally 3 - 20 km range. (Medium)

Higher accuracy
Used in engineering and construction
42

EDM Characteristics

Range in Kms

Accuracy (5mm + 5 ppm)

Operating temperature between -20 to +50 degrees
centigrade
1.5 seconds typical for computing a distance, 1
second when tracking.
Slope reduction either manual or automatic.
Some Instruments average repeated measurements.
Battery operated and can perform between 350 and43
1400 measurements.

Prisms
Made from cube glass corners
Have the property of reflecting rays back
precisely in the same direction.
They can be tribrach-mounted and
centered with an optical plummet, or they
can be attached to a range pole and held
vertical on a point with the aid of a bullseye level.
44

Basic Principles
The EDM generates a laser that is sent to the
prism and returned
The time-of-flight is determined
Knowing the speed of light, the distance can
be deduced
distance = velocity x time
velocity in a vacuum = 299,792,458m/s, need to correct
this for travel through air!
45

EDM now uses LASER

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation LASER.
It is a beam of light of known and
controllable wavelength, visible or invisible
Laser medium (gas, crystal)

Known
wavelength
Energy pump
46

Principle
A wave is transmitted and the returning wave is measured to find the
distance traveled.
EDM

Measures time phase between incident and reflected

spectrum. Computes distance using speed of light and
time phase

47

Time determination
Generally done by the phase difference
method

48

 Distances determined by calculating the number of wavelengths travelled.

Errors are generally small and insignificant for short distances.

For longer distances they can be more important.
Errors can be accounted by the EDM if it has the capability.

Velocity of light can be affected by:

Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
Water vapor content
49

EDM Operation
Operation is divided into the following four steps.

1-Setup
EDM Mounted on a tribrach or to a theodolite.
The prism is set up on a tribrach or a prism pole.
The instrument is turned on to ensure it is in good
working order.
The height of the prism and instrument are measured
and recorded.
50

EDM Operation
2-Aim
Aim is done by built in optical devices on the
EDM or by the use of the theodolite telescope.
Fine tune sighting adjustments until an optimal
signal is achieved.

51

EDM Operation
3-Measure
Slope distances are computed by pressing a measure
button.
Compute horizontal and vertical distances as well, but will it
require further input.
Most EDMs have a tracking mode (for layouts)
Hand-held radios help since long distances make
communication difficult. Some models of EDMs come with
communications devices built in.
Some EDMs transmit the result as well so that the surveyor
holding the prism will be immediately aware of the results
(useful when tracking).
52

EDM Operation
4-Record
Manually in field note book.
Automatically recorded by some EDM
devices.

53

Laser Safety
Although the lasers used in Surveying are of
a class, that is eye safe:
NEVER look into a laser
Do not shine a laser at people or animals
Heed the instructions for use

54

Corrections to EDM distances

Like measurement by all instruments, EDM
measurements contain both systematic and
random error
These consist of:
The additive constant (PC)
Geometrical corrections
Scale, cyclic and frequency errors
Refraction
55

56

Measuring Errors and Mistakes

Instrumental errors Personal errors

Mistakes

Natural errors
57

Systematic Errors
All the physical devices based on steel are subject to
systematic errors
Those based on laser or EMS are also subject to
systematic errors
ALL measurements need to be corrected for slope
Temperature
Steel expands and contracts

Tension
Steel also stretches under tension

Sag
Steel hangs in a catenary
58

Incorrect Alignment/Tape Not Straight

Concept

Incorrect alignment

Tape not straight

Correction

59

RANGING
1. By Eye Judgement
2. By Line Ranger
3. Indirect or Reciprocal
RANGING ON SLOPING GROUND
1. Direct Method or stepping
2. Indirect
Slope angle using clinometer
Height diff using Level
60

Accessories

61

Slope
Whilst we consider the Earth to be a plane, it
is not flat.
Our reference plane is flat, so we need to
correct all distances to the horizontal
It applies to tapes, bands and EDM
measurements

62

Slope

63

Slope Correction

64

Tape Not Horizontal

Concept
Occurs when tape is not kept level

Solution
Corrected using Pythagorean Theorem

H S V
2

V
H

Or by approximate correction

d2

Ch
2S

65

Slope Correction
All plan distances are always quoted as horizontal
distances L.
Therefore any distance not measured on the horizontal
will need to be corrected for slope.
Slope correction must ALWAYS be considered.

Lm

eslope Lm 1 cos
Angle may be measured by
Theodolites

66

Standardisation
Steel based bands and tapes tend to stretch
over time
The field tape is compared to a standard tape

67

Tape Length Correction

Tape has a nominal length under controlled conditions
A tape stretches with time.
Standardisation needs to be carried out frequently by
using reference tape or baseline.

Ls Ln

est Lm
Ln

standardisation
length
(actual tape length)

nominal length
(assumed tape length)

68

Tension/Pull Correction
A tape is a given length when pulled with a certain tension.
If the tension changes then so does the tape length.
Standardisation tension
Tension applied

etension

T Ts Lm

E A

Cross section
Modulus of Elasticity
Area
of tape material
For steel, E = 200,000 N/mm2

69

Temperature Correction
Most tape materials expand and contract with
temperature change, affecting distances.
If a tape has stretched due to heat it will read
shorter than it would at its normal (or standard)
temperature.

etemp Lm (c t )
Length error due to
Temperature
change

Measured
length

Coefficient of
linear expansion

Temperature
change
70

Sag Correction
Due to weight of the tape, it will bend
downward.
This is known as (sag) and can be
determined mathematically.

Weight of tape
per unit length

w L cos

2
24 T
2

ecatenary

Angle of slope

3
m

Tension applied to the ends

71

Combined Errors
Actual tape length would be:

La Lm etemp est esag eslope etension

72

temperature correction L m c t

29.872 0.0000112 5 20
0.0050m

standardisation correction L m
w 2 Lm cos 2
sag correction 24T 2
3

2
3

0.17 29.872 cos 2 3o 40

2
24120

0.0022m

T - Ts Lm
tension correction

EA
120 50 29.872

200 103 2
0.0052m

Ls Ln
Ln

29.872 30.014 30.000

30.000
0.0139m

slope correction - L m 1 - cos

29.8721 cos 3o 40
0.0611m

horizontal length AB = 29.872-0.0050+0.0139-0.0022-0.0611+0.0052

= 29.823m

73

Digital

Plannimeter

74

Digital Planimeter
It is the most versatile and latest equipment for the
computation of areas speedily.
It can be used to calculate the areas of plane figures by two
rotary encoders which replace the integrating wheels for less
wear and better accuracy.
It can be used both in point mode as well as in stream mode.
In the point mode, the points on the boundary are plotted as
straight lines without tracing
In the stream mode, it is necessary to follow the outline of the
curves.
The linear and areal measurements are displayed in fps or
mks units. If the scale of the map, on which measurements are
carried out, is entered, ground distance or area is directly
displayed. For accurate results, several measurements are
recorded and mean value taken.

75

*Total Stations *
Range limits up to 50 km

Total station
=
Theodolite with built in EDM
+
microprocessor

76

Total Station: Zeiss Elta 50R

Combined
measurements
Digital display

77

Measures and Records:

Horizontal Angles
Vertical Angles
and
Slope Distances
Calculates:
Horizontal Distance
Vertical Distance
Azimuths of Lines
X,Y,Z Coordinates
Layout
Etc.

78

79

Two types of errors

Typical accuracy 5 mm + 5 ppm

Both the prism and EDM should be corrected for off-center characteristics.
The prism/instrument constant (about 30 to 40 mm) can be measured by
measuring AC, AB, and BC and then constant = AC-AB-BC

o-------------------------------o-------------o
A

80

Topographical and
alignment surveys

Monitoring
&
Control

Construction Layout

81

Construction

Hydrographic
Boundary

GIS

82

CONSTRUCTION

83

84

Road Accident

85

ROBOTIC TOTAL STATION

86

OBSERVATIONS FOR A BRIDGE

87

OBSERVATIONS FOR A MONUMENT

88

Total stations are ideal for collecting large

numbers of points.
They are commonly used for all aspects of
modern surveying.
They are used when harsh conditions
exist or distances are very long.
Total stations work even when they are
wet.

89

Some Problems
Total stations/EDMs are dependant on
batteries and electronics. Batteries do not
work for a very-2 long hours of observations.
Total stations are typically heavier that a
transit and tape

90

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

91

HAND HELD GPS

92

Navigational GPS

93

GPS Constellation

94

GPS

95

96

GPS Measurements

97

3D Model Coverage

98

99

100

THANKS

101

Centering

102

Example

offset

chain line

103

Taping: Corrections
Once a line is being measured, it is necessary to convert the measured
length into a horizontal length. Series corrections have to be applied.
Five possible corrections have to be considered. These are

Erroneous Tape Length

Slope
Tension
Temperature
Sag
104

Taping: Corrections
For synthetic tapes, only Erroneous Tape Length
and slope corrections will be applied
The best accuracy that can be achieved is the
order of 1:1000
When using steel tapes, if only Erroneous Tape
Length and slope corrections are considered, the
best possible accuracy that can be obtained in the
range 1:5000 If tension and temperature are added
into consideration, accuracy can be increased to
better than 1:10000 ~ 1: 20000
Sag only applies if tape is supported only at ends 105

A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was used to measure

a line AB by suspending it between supports. The
following measurements were recorded
Line
AB

Length Measured Slope Angle Mean Temp. Tension

29.872 m
3o 40
5oC
120 N

The standardisation length of the tape against a reference

tape was known to be 30.014 m at 20oC and 50 N.
If the tape weighs 0.17 N/m and has a cross sectional
area of 2 mm2, calculate the horizontal length of AB.
106

EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are

difficult to access or long distances.
It measures the time required for a wave to sent to a
target and reflect back.

107

n p
L
2

incomplete
fractional part
of a cycle

108

Systematic Errors
Microwave
Atmospheric conditions
Temperature
Pressure
Humidity - must have wet bulb and dry bulb temperature.

Multi-path
Reflected signals can give longer distances

Light
Atmospheric conditions
Temperature
Pressure

Prism offset
Point of measurement is generally behind the plumb line.
Today usually standardized as 30mm.
109

Accuracy
Distance is computed by (no. of wavelengths
generated + partial wavelength)/2.
Standard or Random errors are described in
the form of +(Constant + parts per million).
Constant is the accuracy of converting partial
wavelength to a distance.
ppm is a function of the accuracy of the length of
each wavelength, and the number of wavelengths.

110

Basic principle
DISTANCE = SPEED TIME
(3 10 8 m / sec)

(n sec 1 10 9 s)

Infrared Systems wavelengths microns

Less expensive
Used for short distance only
0.5 3.0 Kms
short
3 10 Kms
Med.
10 20 Kms
Long.
Range is also limited due to poor weather
Higher accuracy ( 5 mm)

Microwave Systems wavelengths Few cms

Expensive
Range up to 100 kms
Can be used in poor weather
Lower accuracy ( 50 mm)
Used for Mine surveying, Hydrographic surveying, Land surveying, civil
engineering construction
111

112

ERRORS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

With invar tape

With steel tape
With tested chain
With chain under av. Condition
With chain on rough/hilly ground

1 in 10,000
1 in 20,000
1 in 10,000
1 in 500
1 in 250

113

Sag

114

Variations in Tape Temperature

Concept
k 0.0000116
0.00000645
k
C

F
For steel coefficient of thermal expansion (k)

Correction

CT Lk T TS

Issues

115

Example

Sag curve

Sag curve measurement is not common nowadays and is

restricted to steel tape only.
116

117

For a 30m Nominal Length Tape

Tape used

When comparing to a standard tape, the tape used indeed has a length
30 m + l

For every 30m measurement, the small elongated amount should be added for
correction.
118

Standardisation

actual _ tape _ length

L l
assumed _ tape _ length
for example l = 226.200m
assumed tape length = 30.000 m
actual tape length = 30.005 m
30.005
L = 226.20 x 30.00

L = 226.238 m
119

Incorrect Length of Tape

Concept
Solution
Correction
true nominal
measured length
nominal

Ce

Example
30.005m 30.000m
53.429m 0.009m
30.000m

Ce

Corrected length 53.429m 0.009m 53.438m

120

Sag Correction

Correction
w 2L3
CS
24P2
121

Sag or Catenary
The correction is as follows:
2 3

( Mg ) l
L
2
24T
We need the mass/unit length
We need to measure the tension
Best to avoid sag!

122

Pull or Tension Correction

For steel
E 29,000,000 lb

in2

E 2,000,000kg

cm2

Correction

P PS L
C
P

AE

123

Temperature
Steel expands by about 1mm/C/100m

c=1.15 x 10-5 m/C

If it is hot weather, the reading on the steel

tape will be shorter than the actual length
This needs to be corrected

124

Temperature
L = l + (l . c . t)
for example, if standard temp = 20C (usual)
field temp = 37C (hot!)
and we measure a distance l = 79.984
c=1.15 x 10-5 m/C
then:

L = 79.984 + (79.984 x 1.15 x 10-5 x 17)

L = 80.000 m

125

EDM
Uses either visible or near-visible EMS
Determines the distance by effectively timing
the pulse of spectrum as it travels to the
object and back
We need to know the speed of light

126