NERVOUS

SYSTEM

What is the Nervous System ?

The nervous system is essentially
the bodys electrical wiring. It is
composed of nerves, which are
cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at
the brain and central cord and branch
out to every other part of the body.

It is the control and communication

system of the body. Its job is to send
and receive messages. Your nervous
system controls all your thoughts and
movements.

Structure
The nervous system derives its name from

nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of fibers

(theaxonsofneurons), that emanate from the
brain andspinal cord, and branch repeatedly
to innervate every part of the body.
All animals more advanced than sponges have
nervous systems. However, even sponges,
unicellular animals, and non-animals such as
slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling
mechanisms that are precursors to those of
neurons.

Two Main parts

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The (CNS) is the major division, and consists

of thebrainand thespinal cord.

 Thespinal canalcontains the spinal

cord, while theheadcontains the

brain.
The CNS is enclosed and protected

by themeninges, a three-layered
system of membranes, including a
tough, leathery outer layer called
thedura mater.
The brain is also protected by the

skull, and the spinal cord by

thevertebrae.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS consists mainly ofnerves, which are

enclosed bundles of the long fibers oraxons,

that connect the CNS to every other part of
the body.

Cell in the Nervous System

It contains two main categories or

types:neuronsandglial cells
1. Neuron issometimes called neurone" or "nerve
cell, their most fundamental property is that they
communicate with other cells viasynapses, which are
membrane-to-membrane junctions containing
molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of
signals, either electrical or [Link] types of
neuron possess an axon, a protoplasmic protrusion
that can extend to distant parts of the body and make
thousands of synaptic contacts. Axons frequently
travel through the body in bundles called nerves.

Even in the nervous system of a single species

such as humans, hundreds of different types

of neurons exist, with a wide variety of
morphologies and functions. These
includesensory neuronsthat transmute
physical stimuli such as light and sound into
neural signals, andmotor neuronsthat
transmute neural signals into activation of
muscles or glands; however in many species
the great majority of neurons receive all of
their input from other neurons and send their
output to other neurons.

2. Glial cells(named from the Greek for "glue") are non-

neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition,

maintainhomeostasis, formmyelin, and participate in signal
transmission in the nervous system. In thehuman brain, it is
estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the
number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different
brain areas.

Most Important Functions

To support neurons and hold them in place;
To supply nutrients to neurons;
To insulate neurons electrically;
To destroypathogensand remove dead neurons;
To provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to

their targets.

A very important type of glial cell

(oligodendrocytesin the central

nervous system, andSchwann
cells in the peripheral nervous
system) generates layers of a
fatty substance calledmyelin that
wraps around axons and provides
electrical insulation which allows
them to transmit action potentials
much more rapidly and efficiently.

in
vertebrat
es
The nervous
system
ofvertebrates
(including
humans) is
divided into
thecentral
nervous
system(CNS)
and
theperipheral
nervous
system(PNS).

FUNCTION
At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system

is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part

of the body to others.
There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to
other cells. One is by releasing chemicals
calledhormonesinto the internal circulation, so that they
can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast"
mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-topoint" signalsneurons project their axons to specific
target areas and make synaptic connections with specific
target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much
higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also
much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that
exceed 100 meters per second.

At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous

system is to control the body.

It does this by extracting information from the environment
using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode this
information into the central nervous system, processing the
information to determine an appropriate response, and sending
output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response.
The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible
for various animal species to have advanced perception abilities
such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of
organ systems, and integrated processing of concurrent signals.
In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it
possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts,
transmission of culture, and many other features of human
society that would not exist without the human brain.

Neurons and synapses

Major

elements
in
synaptic
transmission. An electrochemical
wave
called
anaction
potentialtravels a long theaxonof
a neuron. When the wave reaches
asynapse, it provokes release of a
small
amount
ofneurotransmittermolecules,
which bind to chemical receptor
molecules
located
in
the
membrane of the target cell.

Neural circuits and systems

The basic neuronal function of sending signals to

other cells includes a capability for neurons to

exchange signals with each other.
Networksformed by interconnected groups of
neurons are capable of a wide variety of functions,
including feature detection, pattern generation and
timing, and there are seen to be countless types of
information processing possible.
Warren McCullochandWalter Pittsshowed in 1943
that evenartificial neural networksformed from a
greatly simplified mathematical abstraction of a
neuron are capable ofuniversal computation.

Reflexes and other stimulus-response

circuits

Human Brain
The Human Brain regulates and monitors a

vast array of physical and physiological

reactions in the human body. Although
each individuals personality is unique, the
mechanisms of the human brain are the
same for everyone. The various parts of the
brain
continuously
receive
sensory
information, which is then analyzed and
responded to through the subsequent
control of numerous bodily functions.

Brain
Structures
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Limbic

System
Brain Stem

Cerebrum
The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part

of the human brain, associated with higher

brain function such as thought and action.
The cerebral cortex is divided into four
sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe,
parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal
lobe. Here is a visual representation of the
cortex

What do each of
these lobes do?
Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning,

planning, parts of speech, movement,

emotions, and problem solving
Parietal Lobe- associated with movement,
orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
Occipital Lobe- associated with visual
processing
Temporal Lobe- associated with perception
and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory,
and speech

Cerebellum
The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the

cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has

a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is
associated with regulation and coordination of
movement, posture, and balance.
The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than
the cerebrum, evolutionarily. What do I mean by
this? In other words, animals which scientists
assume to have evolved prior to humans, for
example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums.
However, reptiles do not have neocortex.

Limbic system
The limbic system, often referred to as the

"emotional brain", is found buried within the

cerebrum. Like the cerebellum,
evolutionarily the structure is rather old.
This system contains the thalamus,
hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.
Here is a visual representation of this
system, from a midsagittal view of the
human brain:

Functions
Thalamus-

a large mass of gray

matter deeply situated in the
forebrain at the topmost portion of
the diencephalon. The structure has
sensory and motor functions.

Hypothalamus-

part
of
the
diencephalon,
ventral
to
the
thalamus. The structure is involved
in functions including homeostasis,
emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian
rhythms, and control of the
autonomic nervous system. In
addition, it controls the pituitary.

 Amygdala-

part of the telencephalon,

located in the temporal lobe; involved in
memory,
emotion,
and
fear.
The
amygdala is both large and just beneath
the surface of the front, medial part of
the temporal lobe where it causes the
bulge on the surface called the uncus.
This is a component of the limbic
system.

Hippocampus-

the portion of the

cerebral hemisphers in basal medial
part of the temporal lobe. This part
of the brain is important for learning
and memory . . . for converting short
term memory to more permanent
memory, and for recalling spatial
relationships in the world about us

Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the

brain stem, including heartbeat, blood

pressure and breathing. In humans, this
area contains the medulla, midbrain and
pons. This is commonly referred to as the
simplest part of the brain, as most
creatures on the evolutionary scale have
some form of brain creation that
resembles the brain stem. The brain stem
consists of midbrain, pons and medulla.

The

midbrain,
also
known
as
the
mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum
and tectum. These parts of the brain help
regulate body movement, vision and hearing.
The anterior portion of the midbrain contains
the cerebral peduncle which contains the
axons that transfer messages from the
cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which
allows voluntary motor function to take place.

This portion of the metencephalon is

located in the hindbrain, and links to

the cerebellum to help with posture
and
movement.
It
interprets
information that is used in sensory
analysis or motor control. The pons
also creates the level of consciousness
necessary for sleep.

The

medulla
or
medulla
oblongata is an essential portion
of
the
brain
stem
which
maintains vital body functions
such as the heart rate and
breathing.

Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the most important structure between the body

and the brain. The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum
where it is continuous with the medulla to the level of the first or
second lumbar vertebrae. It is a vital link between the brain and
the body, and from the body to the brain. The spinal cord is 40 to
50 cm long and 1 cm to 1.5 cm in diameter. Two consecutive rows
of nerve roots emerge on each of its sides. These nerve roots join
distally to form 31 pairs ofspinal nerves.
The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure of nervous tissue
composed of white and gray matter, is uniformly organized and is
divided into four regions: cervical (C), thoracic (T), lumbar (L) and
sacral (S), (Figure 3.1), each of which is comprised of several
segments. The spinal nerve contains motor and sensory nerve
fibers to and from all parts of the body. Each spinal cord segment
innervates a dermatome

General features
1. Similar cross-sectional structures at all spinal cord levels
2.

3.

4.
5.

(Figure 3.1).
It carries sensory information (sensations) from the
body and some from the head to the central nervous
system (CNS) via afferent fibers, and it performs the
initial processing of this information.
Motor neurons in the ventral horn project their axons
into the periphery to innervate skeletal and smooth
muscles that mediate voluntary and involuntary
reflexes.
It contains neurons whose descending axons mediate
autonomic control for most of the visceral functions.
It is of great clinical importance because it is a major
site of traumatic injury and the locus for many disease
processes.

Peripheral
is subdivided into two
Sensory-Somatic Nervous

System
Autonomic Nervous System

Sensory - Somatic
The

sensory-somatic nervous system is

composed of cranial and spinal nerves and
contains both sensory and motor neurons.
Sensory
neurons
transmit
sensory
information from the skin, skeletal muscle,
and sensory organs to thecentral nervous
system(CNS).
Motor neurons transmit messages about
desired movement from the CNS to the
muscles, causing them to contract. Without
its sensory-somatic nervous system, an
animal would be unable to process any
information about its environment (what it
sees, feels, hears, etc. ) and could not

Unlike theautonomic nervous system, which has

two synapses between the CNS and the target
organ, sensory and motor neurons have only
one synapse: one ending of the neuron is at the
organ and the other directly contacts a CNS
neuron. Acetylcholine is the main
neurotransmitter released at these synapses.
The sensory-somatic system consists of
12 pairs ofcranial nervesand
31 pairs ofspinal nerves.

cranial NERVEs
1. Olfactory Nerve- for smell
2. Optic Nerve- for vision
3. Oculomotor - for looking around
4. Trochlear- for moving eye
5. Trigeminal- for feeling touch on face
6. Abducens- to move eye muscles
7. Facial- to smile, wink, and help us taste
8. Vestibulocochlear- to help with balance, equilibrium, and hearing
9. Glossopharengeal- for swallowing and gagging
10. Vagus- for swallowing, talking, and parasympathetic actions of

digestion
11. Spinal- accessory for shrugging shoulders
12. Hypoglossal- for tongue more divided into different regions as
muscles

Spinal NERVEs
The

cord
is
segmentally
organized.
There
are
31
segments, defined by 31 pairs of
nerves exiting the cord.
These nerves are divided into 8
cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral, and 1 coccygeal nerve
(Figure 3.2).

Autonomic
The

autonomic nervous system consists of sensory

neurons and motor neurons that run between the central
nervous
system
(especially
thehypothalamusandmedulla oblongata) and various
internal organs such as the:
heart
lungs
viscera
glands (bothexocrineandendocrine)

It is responsible for monitoring conditions in the internal

environment and bringing about appropriate changes in

them. The contraction of bothsmooth muscleandcardiac
muscleis controlled by motor neurons of the autonomic
system

Autonomic
has two subdivisions

Facts

End
REPORTED BY:
Mark Gabriel Costante
Jenny Panganiban