Chapter 24

Wave Optics

Wave Optics

The wave nature of light is needed

to explain various phenomena

Interference
Diffraction
Polarization

The particle nature of light was the

basis for ray (geometric) optics

Interference

Light waves interfere with each

other much like mechanical waves
do
All interference associated with
light waves arises when the
electromagnetic fields that
constitute the individual waves
combine

Conditions for Interference

For sustained interference between

two sources of light to be
observed, there are two conditions
which must be met

The sources must be coherent

They must maintain a constant phase

with respect to each other

The waves must have identical

wavelengths

Producing Coherent
Sources

Light from a monochromatic source is

allowed to pass through a narrow slit
The light from the single slit is allowed
to fall on a screen containing two
narrow slits
The first slit is needed to insure the light
comes from a tiny region of the source
which is coherent
Old method

Producing Coherent
Sources, cont

Currently, it is much more

common to use a laser as a
coherent source
The laser produces an intense,
coherent, monochromatic beam
over a width of several millimeters
The laser light can be used to
illuminate multiple slits directly

Youngs Double Slit

Experiment

Thomas Young first demonstrated

interference in light waves from two
sources in 1801
Light is incident on a screen with a
narrow slit, So
The light waves emerging from this slit
arrive at a second screen that contains
two narrow, parallel slits, S1 and S2

Youngs Double Slit

Experiment, Diagram

The narrow slits,

S1 and S2 act as
sources of waves
The waves
emerging from
the slits originate
from the same
wave front and
therefore are
always in phase

Resulting Interference
Pattern

The light from the two slits form a

visible pattern on a screen
The pattern consists of a series of bright
and dark parallel bands called fringes
Constructive interference occurs where
a bright fringe appears
Destructive interference results in a
dark fringe

Fringe Pattern

The fringe pattern

formed from a
Youngs Double Slit
Experiment would
look like this
The bright areas
represent
constructive
interference
The dark areas
represent destructive
interference

Interference Patterns

Constructive
interference
occurs at the
center point
The two waves
travel the same
distance

Therefore, they
arrive in phase

Interference Patterns, 2

The upper wave has

to travel farther than
the lower wave
The upper wave
travels one
wavelength farther

Therefore, the waves

arrive in phase

A bright fringe
occurs

Interference Patterns, 3

The upper wave

travels one-half of a
wavelength farther
than the lower wave
The trough of the
bottom wave
overlaps the crest of
the upper wave
This is destructive
interference

A dark fringe occurs

Interference Equations

The path difference,

, is found from the
tan triangle
= r2 r1 = d sin

This assumes the

paths are parallel
Not exactly parallel,
but a very good
approximation since L
is much greater than
d

Interference Equations, 2

For a bright fringe, produced by

constructive interference, the path
difference must be either zero or some
integral multiple of the wavelength
= d sin bright = m

m = 0, 1, 2,
m is called the order number

When m = 0, it is the zeroth order maximum

When m = 1, it is called the first order
maximum

Interference Equations, 3

The positions of the fringes can be

measured vertically from the zeroth order
maximum
y = L tan L sin
Assumptions

L>>d
d>>

Approximation

is small and therefore the approximation

tan sin can be used

Interference Equations, 4

When destructive interference

occurs, a dark fringe is observed
This needs a path difference of an
odd half wavelength
= d sin dark = (m + )

m = 0, 1, 2,

Interference Equations,
final

For bright fringes

y bright

m
d

m 0, 1, 2 K

For dark fringes

ydark

1
2

m 0, 1, 2 K

Uses for Youngs Double

Slit Experiment

Youngs Double Slit Experiment

provides a method for measuring
wavelength of the light
This experiment gave the wave
model of light a great deal of
credibility

It is inconceivable that particles of

light could cancel each other

Lloyds Mirror

An arrangement for
producing an
interference pattern
with a single light
source
Wave reach point P
either by a direct path
or by reflection
The reflected ray can
be treated as a ray
from the source S
behind the mirror

Interference Pattern from

the Lloyds Mirror

An interference pattern is formed

The positions of the dark and
bright fringes are reversed relative
to pattern of two real sources
This is because there is a 180
phase change produced by the
reflection

Phase Changes Due To

Reflection

An electromagnetic
wave undergoes a
phase change of
180 upon reflection
from a medium of
higher index of
refraction than the
one in which it was
traveling

Analogous to a
reflected pulse on a
string

Phase Changes Due To

Reflection, cont

There is no phase
change when the
wave is reflected
from a boundary
leading to a medium
of lower index of
refraction

Analogous to a pulse
in a string reflecting
from a free support

Interference in Thin Films

Interference effects are

commonly observed in thin films

Examples are soap bubbles and oil on

water

The interference is due to the

interaction of the waves
reflected from both surfaces of
the film

Interference in Thin Films,

2

Facts to remember

An electromagnetic wave traveling from a

medium of index of refraction n1 toward a
medium of index of refraction n2 undergoes
a 180 phase change on reflection when n2
> n1

There is no phase change in the reflected wave if

n2 < n 1

The wavelength of light n in a medium

with index of refraction n is n = /n where
is the wavelength of light in vacuum

Interference in Thin Films,

3

Ray 1 undergoes a
phase change of
180 with respect to
the incident ray
Ray 2, which is
reflected from the
lower surface,
undergoes no phase
change with respect
to the incident wave

Interference in Thin Films,

4

Ray 2 also travels an additional distance

of 2t before the waves recombine
For constructive interference

2nt = (m + ) m = 0, 1, 2

This takes into account both the difference in

optical path length for the two rays and the 180
phase change

For destruction interference

2 n t = m m = 0, 1, 2

Interference in Thin Films,

5

Two factors influence interference

Possible phase reversals on reflection

Differences in travel distance

The conditions are valid if the medium above

the top surface is the same as the medium
below the bottom surface
If the thin film is between two different
media, one of lower index than the film and
one of higher index, the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference are
reversed

Interference in Thin Films,

final

Be sure to include two effects

when analyzing the interference
pattern from a thin film

Path length
Phase change

Newtons Rings

Another method for viewing interference is to

place a planoconvex lens on top of a flat glass
surface
The air film between the glass surfaces varies in
thickness from zero at the point of contact to
some thickness t
A pattern of light and dark rings is observed

This rings are called Newtons Rings

The particle model of light could not explain the
origin of the rings

Newtons Rings can be used to test optical lenses

Problem Solving Strategy

with Thin Films, 1

Identify the thin film causing the

interference
Determine the indices of refraction
in the film and the media on either
side of it
Determine the number of phase
reversals: zero, one or two

Problem Solving with Thin

Films, 2

The interference is constructive if

the path difference is an integral
multiple of and destructive if the
path difference is an odd half
multiple of

The conditions are reversed if one of

the waves undergoes a phase change
on reflection

Problem Solving with Thin

Films, 3
Equation

1 phase
reversal

0 or 2 phase
reversals

2nt = (m + )

constructive

destructive

destructive

constructive

2nt = m

Interference in Thin Films,

Example

An example of
different indices
of refraction
A coating on a
solar cell
There are two
phase changes

CDs and DVDs

Data is stored digitally

Strong reflections correspond to

constructive interference

A series of ones and zeros read by laser light

reflected from the disk

These reflections are chosen to represent zeros

Weak reflections correspond to destructive

interference

These reflections are chosen to represent ones

CDs and Thin Film

Interference

A CD has multiple tracks

The tracks consist of a sequence of

pits of varying length formed in a
reflecting information layer

The pits appear as bumps to the

laser beam

The laser beam shines on the metallic

layer through a clear plastic coating

Reading a CD

As the disk rotates, the

laser reflects off the
sequence of bumps and
lower areas into a
photodector

The photodector converts the

fluctuating reflected light
intensity into an electrical
string of zeros and ones

The pit depth is made

equal to one-quarter of the
wavelength of the light

Reading a CD, cont

When the laser beam hits a rising or

falling bump edge, part of the beam
reflects from the top of the bump and
part from the lower adjacent area

This ensures destructive interference and

very low intensity when the reflected beams
combine at the detector

The bump edges are read as ones

The flat bump tops and intervening flat
plains are read as zeros

DVDs

DVDs use shorter wavelength

lasers

The track separation, pit depth and

minimum pit length are all smaller
Therefore, the DVD can store about
30 times more information than a CD

Diffraction

Huygens principle
requires that the waves
spread out after they
pass through slits
This spreading out of
light from its initial line
of travel is called
diffraction

In general, diffraction
occurs when waves
pass through small
openings, around
obstacles or by sharp
edges

Diffraction, 2

A single slit placed between a distant

light source and a screen produces a
diffraction pattern

It will have a broad, intense central band

The central band will be flanked by a series
of narrower, less intense secondary bands

Called secondary maxima

The central band will also be flanked by a

series of dark bands

Called minima

Diffraction, 3

The results of the

single slit cannot be
explained by
geometric optics

Geometric optics
would say that light
rays traveling in
straight lines should
cast a sharp image of
the slit on the screen

Fraunhofer Diffraction

Fraunhofer Diffraction
occurs when the rays
leave the diffracting
object in parallel
directions

Screen very far from the slit

Converging lens (shown)

A bright fringe is seen

along the axis ( = 0)
with alternating bright
and dark fringes on each
side

Single Slit Diffraction

According to Huygens
principle, each portion
of the slit acts as a
source of waves
The light from one
portion of the slit can
interfere with light from
another portion
The resultant intensity
on the screen depends
on the direction

Single Slit Diffraction, 2

All the waves that originate at the slit

are in phase
Wave 1 travels farther than wave 3 by
an amount equal to the path difference
(a/2) sin
If this path difference is exactly half of a
wavelength, the two waves cancel each
other and destructive interference
results

Single Slit Diffraction, 3

In general, destructive interference

occurs for a single slit of width a
when sin dark = m / a

m = 1, 2, 3,

Doesnt give any information about

the variations in intensity along
the screen

Single Slit Diffraction, 4

The general features of

the intensity distribution
are shown
A broad central bright
fringe is flanked by much
weaker bright fringes
alternating with dark
fringes
The points of constructive
interference lie
approximately halfway
between the dark fringes

Diffraction Grating

The diffracting grating consists of

many equally spaced parallel slits

A typical grating contains several

thousand lines per centimeter

The intensity of the pattern on the

screen is the result of the
combined effects of interference
and diffraction

Diffraction Grating, cont

The condition for

maxima is

d sin bright = m

m = 0, 1, 2,

The integer m is the

order number of the
diffraction pattern
If the incident radiation
contains several
wavelengths, each
wavelength deviates
through a specific angle

Diffraction Grating, final

All the wavelengths are

focused at m = 0

This is called the zeroth

order maximum

The first order maximum

corresponds to m = 1
Note the sharpness of the
principle maxima and the
broad range of the dark area

This is in contrast to the

broad, bright fringes
characteristic of the two-slit
interference pattern

Diffraction Grating in CD
Tracking

A diffraction grating can

be used in a three-beam
method to keep the
beam on a CD on track
The central maximum of
the diffraction pattern is
used to read the
information on the CD
The two first-order
maxima are used for
steering

Polarization of Light Waves

Each atom produces a

wave with its own
r
orientation of E
All directions of the
electric field vector are
equally possible and lie
in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of
propagation
This is an unpolarized
wave

Polarization of Light, cont

A wave is said to be linearly

polarized if the resultant
electric field vibrates in the
same direction at all times at a
particular point
Polarization can be obtained
from an unpolarized beam by

selective absorption
reflection
scattering

Polarization by Selective
Absorption

The most common technique for polarizing light

Uses a material that transmits waves whose
electric field vectors in the plane are parallel to a
certain direction and absorbs waves whose electric
field vectors are perpendicular to that direction

Selective Absorption, cont

E. H. Land discovered a material

that polarizes light through
selective absorption

He called the material Polaroid

The molecules readily absorb light
whose electric field vector is parallel
to their lengths and transmit light
whose electric field vector is
perpendicular to their lengths

Selective Absorption, final

The intensity of the polarized beam

transmitted through the second
polarizing sheet (the analyzer) varies as

I = Io cos2

Io is the intensity of the polarized wave incident

on the analyzer
This is known as Malus Law and applies to any
two polarizing materials whose transmission axes
are at an angle of to each other

Polarization by Reflection

When an unpolarized light beam is reflected

from a surface, the reflected light is

Completely polarized
Partially polarized
Unpolarized

It depends on the angle of incidence

If the angle is 0 or 90, the reflected beam is

unpolarized
For angles between this, there is some degree of
polarization
For one particular angle, the beam is completely
polarized

Polarization by Reflection,
cont

The angle of incidence for which the

reflected beam is completely polarized
is called the polarizing angle, p
Brewsters Law relates the polarizing
angle to the index of refraction for the
material
sin p
n
tan p
cos p
p may also be called Brewsters Angle

Polarization by Scattering

When light is incident on a system

of particles, the electrons in the
medium can absorb and reradiate
part of the light

This process is called scattering

An example of scattering is the

sunlight reaching an observer on
the earth becoming polarized

Polarization by Scattering,
cont

The horizontal part of the

electric field vector in the
incident wave causes the
charges to vibrate
horizontally
The vertical part of the
vector simultaneously
causes them to vibrate
vertically
Horizontally and vertically
polarized waves are
emitted

Optical Activity

Certain materials display the

property of optical activity

A substance is optically active if it

rotates the plane of polarization of
transmitted light
Optical activity occurs in a material
because of an asymmetry in the
shape of its constituent materials

Liquid Crystals

A liquid crystal is a substance with

properties intermediate between those of a
crystalline solid and those of a liquid

The molecules of the substance are more orderly than

those of a liquid but less than those in a pure
crystalline solid

To create a display, the liquid crystal is

placed between two glass plates and
electrical contacts are made to the liquid
crystal

A voltage is applied across any segment in the display

and that segment turns on

Liquid Crystals, 2

Rotation of a polarized light beam by a liquid

crystal when the applied voltage is zero
Light passes through the polarizer on the right
and is reflected back to the observer, who sees
the segment as being bright

Liquid Crystals, 3

When a voltage is applied, the liquid crystal

does not rotate the plane of polarization
The light is absorbed by the polarizer on the
right and none is reflected back to the observer
The segment is dark

Liquid Crystals, final

Changing the applied voltage in a

precise pattern can

Tick off the seconds on a watch

Display a letter on a computer display