Basic electronics

Optical interfaces:
Detect and control
 Ohm’s law
Current = voltage / resistance
• I=V/R
• V=IxR

Definitions
• Voltage = potential energy / unit charge, units = Volts
• Current = charge flow rate, units = Amps
• Resistance = friction, units = Ohms

Example
• Voltage drop when current flows through resistor
• V1 - V2 = I R

V1

R I

V2
 Schematics
• Symbols represent circuit elements
• Lines are wires

+
Battery Sample circuit

V + I R
Resistor

Ground Ground voltage

defined = 0
 Parallel and series resistors
Series
• same current flows through all
Series circuit
Parallel
V = R1 I + R2 I = Reff I
• save voltage across all Reff = R1 + R2

R1
Parallel circuit V
+
I = V/R1 + V/R2 = V/Reff
I
1/Reff = 1/R1 + 1/R2
I R2
V Note: these points are
+
R1 R2 connected together
I1 I2
 Resistive voltage divider
• Series resistor circuit
• Reduce input voltage to desired level
• Advantages:
– simple and accurate
– complex circuit can use single voltage source
• Disadvantage:
– dissipates power
– easy to overload
– need Rload << R2
Resistive divider
I = Vin/Reff = Vout/R2
Vout = Vin (R2 / (R1 + R2) )
I
Vin Vout

R1
+ New schematic symbol:
R2
I external connection
 Variable voltage divider
• Use potentiometer (= variable resistor)
• Most common: constant output resistance

Variable voltage divider

Vout = Vin (Rout / (Rvar + Rout) )
New schematic symbol: I
potentiometer Vout
Vin
Rvar
+
Rout I
 Capacitors
• Charge = voltage x capacitance
• Q=CV
Definitions
• Charge = integrated current flow , units = Coloumbs = Amp - seconds
• I = dQ/dt
• Capacitance = storage capacity, units = Farads
Example
• Capacitor charging circuit
• Time constant = RC = 

Capacitor charging curve

time constant = RC
Vin

Vout
 = RC
I
Vout
t
V R Capacitor charging circuit
+ Q
C V = VR + VC = R dQ/dt + Q/C
New schematic dQ/dt + Q/RC = V/R
symbol: Q = C V (1 - exp(-t/RC))
capacitor Vout = Vin (1 - exp(-t/RC))
 AC circuits
• Replace battery with sine (cosine) wave source
• V = V0 cos(2  f t)
Definitions
• Frequency f = cosine wave frequency, units = Hertz
Examples
• Resistor response: I = (V0/R) cos(2  f t)
• Capacitor response: Q = CV0 cos(2  f t)
– I = - 2  f CV0 sin(2  f t)
– Current depends on frequency
– negative sine wave replaces cosine wave
– - 90 degree phase shift = lag
Capacitive ac circuit
Resistive ac circuit • 90 degree phase lag

V0 cos(2  f t) V0 cos(2  f t)

R C
I= I=
New schematic (V0/R) cos(2  f t) - 2  f CV0 sin(2  f t)
symbol:
AC voltage source
 Simplified notation: ac-circuits
• V = V0 cos(2  f t) = V0 [exp(2 j f t) + c.c.]/2
• Drop c.c. part and factor of 1/2
• V = V0 exp(2 j f t)
Revisit resistive and capacitive circuits
• Resistor response: I = (V0/R) exp(2 j f t) = V / R = V/ ZR
• Capacitor response: I = 2 j f CV0 exp(2 j f t) = (2 j f C) V = V/ ZC
Definition: Impedance, Z = effective resistance, units Ohms
• Capacitor impedance ZC = 1 / (2 jf C)
• Resistor impedance ZR = R
Impedance makes it look like Ohms law applies to capacitive circuits also
• Capacitor response I = V / ZC
 Explore capacitor circuits
Impedance ZC = 1/ (2 jf C)
• Limit of low frequency f ~ 0
– ZC --> infinity
– Capacitor is open circuit at low frequency
• Limit of low frequency f ~ infinity
– ZC --> 0
– Capacitor is short circuit at low frequency

Capacitive ac circuit

V0 cos(2  f t)

I = V/ZC C
 Revisit capacitor charging circuit
Replace C with impedance ZC
• Charging circuit looks like voltage divider
• Vout = Vin (ZC / (ZR + ZC) ) = Vin / (1 + 2 jf R C )
Low-pass filter
Crossover when f = 1 / 2 R C = 1 / 2  ,  is time constant
• lower frequencies Vout ~ Vin = pass band
• higher frequencies Vout ~ Vin / (2 jf R C ) = attenuated

Capacitor charging circuit

Low-pass filter response
= Low-pass filter
• time constant = RC = 
I
Vin = V0 cos(2  f t) Vout logVin
Single-pole rolloff
R knee 6 dB/octave
log(Vout)
I = 10 dB/decade
C
f = 1 / 2 

log(f )
 Inductors
• Voltage = rate of voltage change x inductance
• V = L dI/dt
Definitions
• Inductance L = resistance to current change, units = Henrys
Impedance of inductor: ZL = (2 jf L)
• Low frequency = short circuit
• High frequency = open circuit
Inductors rarely used

Capacitor charging circuit

= Low-pass filter High-pass filter response
I logVin
Vin = V0 cos(2  f t) Vout

R log(Vout)
L I
New schematic f = R / 2 jL
symbol:
Inductor
log(f )
 Capacitor filters circuits
• Can make both low and high pass filters
Low-pass filter High-pass filter
Vin = V cos(2  f t) I Vin = V cos(2  f t) I
0
Vout 0
Vout
R C
C I R I

Gain response Gain response

logVin
logVin

knee
log(Vout) log(Vout)

f = 1 / 2  f = 1 / 2 

log(f ) log(f )
Phase response Phase response
log(f ) log(f )
0 degrees 0 degrees
phase phase
-90 degrees -90 degrees

f = 1 / 2  f = 1 / 2 
Summary of schematic symbols
+ Potentiometer
Battery Resistor

Capacitor Potentiometer
AC voltage 2-inputs plus
source center tap

Inductor
Diode
Ground

Non-connecting
External wires -
connection
+
Op amp
 Color code
• Resistor values determined by color
• Three main bands

Color Number
– 1st = 1st digit
– 2nd = 2nd digit
– 3rd = # of trailing zeros
• Examples
– red, brown, black
– 2 1 no zeros = 21 Ohms
– yellow, brown, green
– 4 1 5 = 4.1 Mohm
– purple, gray, orange
– 7 8 3 = 78 kOhms
• Capacitors can have 3 numbers
– use like three colors

black 0
brown 1
red 2
orange 3
yellow 4
green 5
blue 6
violet 7
gray 8
white 9