Monday

Thermodynamics of aqueous solutions

Ion association
Pitzer
SIT

SOLUTION and SOLUTION _SPREAD

Units
pHratio of HCO3-/CO2
peratio of oxidized/reduced valence states
Charge balance
Phase boundaries

Saturation indices
Uncertainties
Useful minerals

Identify potential reactants

1

Solution Definition and

Speciation Calculations
SO4

Ca

Mg

Na

Cl Fe HCO3
Inverse Modeling
Saturation
Indices

Speciation
calculation

Reactions
Transport
2

Seawater: Units are ppm

Constituent

Value

pH

8.22

pe

8.45

Temperature

25

Ca

412.3

Mg

1291.8

Na

10768

399.1

Fe

.002

Alkalinity as HCO3 141.682

Cl

19353

SO4

2712

Initial Solution 1. Questions

1. What is the approximate molality of Ca?
2. What is the approximate alkalinity in meq/kgw?
3. What is the alkalinity concentration in mg/kgs as CaCO 3?
4. What effect does density have on the calculated molality?

PHREEQC results are always

moles or molality

Initial Solution 1.
For most waters, we can assume most of
the mass in solution is water. Mass of
water in 1 kg seawater ~ 1 kg.
1. 412/40 ~ 10 mmol/kgw ~ 0.01 molal
2. 142/61 ~ 2.3 meq/kgw ~ 0.0023 molal
3. 2.3*50 ~ 116 mg/kgw as CaCO3
4. None, density will only be used when
concentration is specified as per liter.
5

Solutions
Required for all PHREEQC calculations
SOLUTION and SOLUTION _SPREAD

Units
pH
pe
Charge balance
Phase boundaries

Saturation indices

Uncertainties
Useful minerals
Identify potential reactants
6

Periodic_table.bmp

Default Gram Formula Mass

Element/Redox State

Default as [Link]/[Link]

Alkalinity

CaCO3

C, C(4)

HCO3

CH4

CH4

NO3-

NH4+

Si

SiO2

PO4

SO4

SO4

Default GFW is defined in 4th field of

SOLUTION_MASTER_SPECIES in database file.
8

Changing Database

Each time you

run

Or

File->Properties
Set
Input file
Output file
Database file

Also

Options->Set
default database
9

Databases
Ion association approach

[Link] (subset of [Link])

[Link] trace elements
[Link] from minteq v 2
[Link] from minteq v 4
[Link] complete set of elements, temperature dependence
[Link](in development) thermodynamics of isotopes

Pitzer specific interaction approach

[Link] interaction model (many parameters)

SIT specific interaction theory

[Link] specific interaction model (1 parameter)

10

PHREEQC Databases
Other data blocks related to speciation
SOLUTION_MASTER_SPECIESRedox
states and gram formula mass
SOLUTION_SPECIESReaction and log K
PHASESReaction and log K
11

What is a speciation calculation?

Input:

pH
pe
Concentrations

Equations:

Mass-balancesum of the calcium species = total calcium

Mass-actionactivities of products divided by reactants =
constant
Activity coefficientsfunction of ionic strength

Output

Molalities, activities
Saturation indices
12

Mass-Balance Equations
Analyzed concentration of sulfate = (SO4-2)
+ (MgSO40) + (NaSO4-) + (CaSO40) +
(KSO4-) + (HSO4-) + (CaHSO4+) + (FeSO4)
+ (FeSO4+) + (Fe(SO4)2-) + (FeHSO4+) +
(FeHSO4+2)
() indicates molality

13

Mass-Action Equations
Ca+2 + SO4-2 = CaSO40
[CaSO4 ]
K
2
[Ca 2 ][ SO4 ]
0

log K log[CaSO4 ] log[Ca ] log[ SO4 ]

[] indicates activity
14

Activity

ai i mi
1
zi2 mi
2 i

WATEQ activity coefficient

log i
bi
0
1 Bai
Azi

Davies activity coefficient

log i Azi
0.3i
1

15

Uncharged Species
log i bi
bi, called the Setschenow coefficient
Value of 0.1 used in [Link], [Link].

16

Pitzer Activity Coefficients

ln M z M2 F ma (2 BMa ZC Ma ) mc ( Mc M a Mca )

m m
a

a'

a'

aa 'm

z m mc ma Cca
c

ma concentration of anion
mc concentration of cation
C , B, , Ion specific parameters
F function of ionic strength, molalities of cations and anions
17

SIT Activity Coefficients

ln i Azi
ik mk
1 B
k
2

mk concentrations of ion

ik Interaction parameter
A = 0.51, B = 1.5 at 25 C
18

Aqueous Models
Ion association
Pros

Data for most elements (Al, Si)

Redox

Cons

Ionic strength < 1

Best only in Na, Cl medium
Inconsistent thermodynamic data
Temperature dependence
19

Aqueous Models
Pitzer specific interaction
Pros

High ionic strength

Thermodynamic consistency for mixtures of
electrolytes

Cons

Limited elements
Little if any redox
Difficult to add elements
Temperature dependence
20

Aqueous Models
SIT

Pros

Better possibility for higher ionic strength than ion

association
Many fewer parameters
Redox
Actinides

Cons

Poor results for gypsum/NaCl in my limited testing

Temperature dependence
Consistency?

21

PhreeqcI: SOLUTION Data Block

22

Number, pH, pe, Temperature

23

Solution Composition
Set units!

Default is mmol/kgw

Select elements

Set concentrations
As, special units

Click when
done
24

Run Speciation Calculation

Run

Select files

25

Ion Association Model Results

26

Initial Solution 2. Exercise

A. Use [Link] to
run a speciation
calculation for
seawater
B. Use [Link]
Copy input to a new
buffer

Ctrl-a (select all)

Ctrl-c (copy)
File->new or ctrl-n
(new input file)
Ctrl-v (paste)

Units are ppm

Constituent

Value

pH

8.22

pE

8.45

Temperature

25

Ca

412.3

Mg

1291.8

Na

10768

399.1

Fe

.002

Alkalinity as HCO3 141.682

Cl

19353

27

Results of 2 Speciation Calculations

Tile

28

Initial Solution 2. Questions

1. Write the mass-balance equation for calcium in
seawater for each database.
2. What fraction of the total is Ca+2 ion for each
database?
3. What fraction of the total is Fe+3 ion for each
database?
4. What are the log activity and log activity coefficient of
CO3-2 for each database?
5. What is the saturation index of calcite for each
database?
29

Initial Solution 2a. Questions

1. Write the mass-action equation for the
reaction: CO2 + H2O = HCO3- + H+.
2. Write the mass-action equation for question 1
in log form.
3. Calculate the equilibrium constant by using
the log activities from the speciation results.
4. At what pH will activity [CO2] equal activity
[HCO3-]?
30

Initial Solution 2. Answers

() indicates molality
1a. Ca(total)= 1.066e-2 = (Ca+2) + (CaSO4) + (CaHCO3+) + (CaCO3) +
(CaOH+) + (CaHSO4+)
1b. Ca(total) = 1.066e-2 = (Ca+2) + (CaCO3)
2a. 9.5/10.7 ~ 0.95
2b. 1.063/1.066 ~ 1.0
3a. 3.509e-019 / 3.711e-008 ~ 1e-11
3b. No Fe+3 ion.
4a. log activity CO3-2 = -5.099; log gamma CO3-2 = -0.68
4b. log activity CO3-2 = -5.091; log gamma CO3-2 = -1.09
5a. SI(calcite) = 0.76
5b. SI(calcite) = 0.70
31

Initial Solution 2a. Answers

1. K = [HCO3-][H+]/([CO2][H2O])
2. Log K = log([HCO3-]) + log([H+]) - log([CO2]) +
log([H2O])
3. Log K = -2.99 + (-8.22) - (- 4.849) - (-0.009) = -6.352
4. ~pH 6.35
32

More on Solution Definition

pH, Carbon, Alkalinity

33

What is pH?
pH =

6.3 + log[(HCO3-)/(CO2)]

pH =

10.3 + log[(CO3-2)/(HCO3-)]

Questions
1. How does the pH change when CO2
degasses during an alkalinity titration?
2. How does pH change when plankton respire
CO2?
3. How does pH change when calcite dissolves?
34

Total Inorganic Carbon

Number of moles of carbon of valence 4

Alkalinity

Effectively, the alkalinity is the number

of equivalents of H+ needed to convert
all of the inorganic carbon to
CO2 (aq or g)
HCO3- + H+ = CO2 + H2O

Alkalinity is independent of PCO2

35

SOLUTION_SPREAD

SELECTED_OUTPUT
36

SOLUTION_SPREAD

37

SELECTED_OUTPUT
File name

[Link] all to false

2. Set pH to true
38

SELECTED_OUTPUT--Molalities

Select species

39

Initial Solution 4a. Exercises

pH

10

11

12

Concentration in mmol/kgw

1. Make speciation calculations for these 9 solution compositions

with SOLUTION _SPREAD.
2. Make a table of pH, (CO2), (HCO3-), (CO3-2) with
SELECTED_OUTPUT. Plot pH vs. concentrations in Excel
40

Initial Solution 4b. Exercises

pH

Alkalinity

10

11

Concentration in meq/kgw

1. Make speciation calculations for these 6 solution compositions

with SOLUTION _SPREAD.
2. Use SELECTED_OUTPUT to make a table of pH, (CO2),
(HCO3-), (CO3-2), total C (use TOTALS tab). Plot pH vs.
concentrations in Excel.
41

Initial Solution 4. Questions

1. Write a definition of total carbon(4)
(sometimes called total CO2 or TDIC)
in terms of (CO2), (HCO3-), (CO3-2).
2. Write a definition of alkalinity in terms of
(CO2), (HCO3-), (CO3-2).
3. Include (OH-) in your definition.
4. Include (H+) in your definition.
42

Fixed Total Carbon

43

Fixed Alkalinity

44

Initial Solution 4. Answers

1. Total CO2 = (CO2) + (HCO3-) + (CO3-2)
2. Alkalinity = (HCO3-) + 2(CO3-2)
3. Alkalinity = (HCO3-) + 2(CO3-2) + (OH-)
4. Alkalinity = (HCO3-) + 2(CO3-2) + (OH-) (H+)
45

More on Solution Definition

Redox, pe

46

What is pe?
Fe+2 = Fe+3 + epe = log( [Fe+3]/[Fe+2] ) + 13
HS- + 4H2O = SO4-2 + 9H+ + 8epe = log( [SO4-2]/[HS-] ) 9/8pH + 4.21
N2 + 6H2O = 2NO3- + 12H+ + 10epe = 0.1log( [NO3-]2/[N2] ) 1.2pH + 20.7
pe = 16.9Eh, Eh in volts (platinum electrode
measurement)

47

Initial Solution 7. Question

1. Write an equation for pe from the
equation for oxidation of NH4+ to
NO3-, log K for reaction is 119.1.
Hint: Chemical reaction has NH4+ and
H2O on the left-hand-side and NO3-,
H+, and e- on the right-hand-side.

48

Initial Solution 7. Answer

NH4+ + 3H2O = NO3- + 10H+ + 8eLog K = -119.1 = log[NO3-] 10pH 8pe log[NH4+] - 3log[H2O]
8pe = log[NO3-] log[NH4+] + 119.1 10pH 3log[H2O]
pe = 1/8log( [NO3-] / [NH4+] ) 10/8pH + 14.9 3/8log[H2O]

49

More on pe
Aqueous electrons do not exist
Redox reactions are frequently not in
equilibrium
Multiple pes from multiple redox couples
However, we do not expect to see major
inconsistenciese.g. both D.O. and HSin a single environment
50

Redox and pe in SOLUTION

Data Blocks
When do you need pe for SOLUTION?

To distribute total concentration of a redox element among

redox states [e.g. Fe to Fe(2) and Fe(3)]
A few saturation indices with e- in dissociation reactions
Pyrite
Native sulfur
Manganese oxides

Can use a redox couple Fe(2)/Fe(3) in place of pe

Rarely, pe = 16.9Eh. (25 C and Eh in Volts).
pe options can only be applied to speciation
calculations; thermodynamic pe is used for all other
calculations
51

Redox Elements
Element
Carbon
Sulfur
Nitrogen

Oxygen

Redox
state
C(4)

Species

Element

CO2

Iron

C(-4)

CH4

S(6)

SO4-2

S(-2)

HS

N(5)

NO3-

N(3)

NO2-

N(0)

N2

N(-3)

NH4

O(0)

O2

O(-2)

H2O

Hydrogen H(1)
H(0)

H2O
H2

Redox
state
Fe(3)

Species

Fe(2)

Fe+2

Manganese

Mn(2)

Mn+2

Arsenic

As(5)

AsO4-3

As(3)

AsO3-3

U(6)

UO2+2

U(4)

U+4

Cr(6)

CrO4-2

Cr(3)

Cr+3

Se(6)

SeO4-2

Se(4)

SeO3-2

Se(-2)

HSe-52

Uranium
Chromium
Selenium

Fe+3

Using Redox Couples

Double click to
get list of
redox couples
Must have
analyses for
chosen redox
couple

53

Seawater Initial Solution

Fe total was entered. How were Fe(3) and Fe(2)
concentrations calculated?

For initial solutions

peO ( 0 ) / H 2O peN (5) / N ( 3) peS ( 6 ) / S ( 2 )

For reactions

peO ( 0) / H 2O peN ( 5) / N ( 3) peS ( 6 ) / S ( 2)

54

Iron Speciation with PhreePlot

55

Initial Solution 8. Exercise

Solution number
Constituent

pH

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

pe

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Redox

pe

pe

pe

Fe(2)/Fe(3)

Fe, mmol/kgw

1.0

Fe(2) , mmol/kgw
Fe(3) , mmol/kgw

1.0

1.0
1.0

1.0

Define SOLUTIONs and run calculations.

56

Initial Solution 8. Exercise

Solution number
Element

--

--

--

Total iron
Total ferrous iron
Total ferric iron
pe from Fe(3)/Fe(2)
Saturation Index Fe(OH)3(a)
Saturation Index Goethite

Fill in the table.

57

Initial Solution 8. Questions

1. For each solution
a.
b.

Explain the distribution of Fe between Fe(2) and Fe(3).

This equation is used for goethite SI:
FeOOH + 3H+ = Fe+3 + 2H2O
Explain why the goethite saturation index is
present or absent.

2. What pe is calculated for solution 4?

3. In solution 4, given the following equation, why is the
pe not 13?
pe = log( [Fe+3]/[Fe+2] ) + 13
4. For pH > 5, it is a good assumption that the measured
iron concentration is nearly all Fe(2) (ferrous). How
can you ensure that the speciation calculation is
consistent with this assumption?
58

Initial Solution 8. Answers

Solution number
Element

Total iron

1.0

1.0

1.0

2.0

Total ferrous iron

1.0

1.0

1.0

3e-8

1.0

1.0

pe from Fe(3)/Fe(2)

--

--

--

4.4

Saturation Index Fe(OH)3(a)

4.4

4.4

5.9

10.3

10.3

Total ferric iron

Saturation Index Goethite

Fill in the table.

59

Initial Solution 8. Answers

1. Solution 1:

a. Fe distributed by using pe 0, Fe(2) and Fe(3) defined.

b. Fe(3) is defined, goethite SI can be calculated.
Solution 2:
a. Fe(2) is defined to be 1 mmol/kgw.
Fe(3) is undefined.
b. Fe(3) is not defined, goethite SI can not be calculated.
Solution 3:
a. Fe(2) is undefined.
Fe(3) is defined to be 1 mmol/kgw.
b. Fe(3) is defined, goethite SI can be calculated.
Solution 4:
a. Fe(2) and Fe(3) defined.
b. Fe(3) is defined, goethite SI can be calculated.
2. pe from Fe(2)/Fe(3) couple is 4.4.
3. The equation is for the activity of Fe+3 and Fe+2 ions. In solution, we defined
the sum of the molalities of the Fe(3) and Fe(2) species. Fe(2) is
predominantly (Fe+2) ion, but Fe(OH)3 and Fe(OH)2+ are the predominant
Fe(3) species. (Fe+3) is 8 orders of magnitude less than the predominant
species.
4. Define iron as Fe(2) or adjust pe sufficiently low to produce mostly Fe(2). Note:
goethite SI will not be calculated in the first case and will be completely
dependent on your choice of pe for the second.
60

Final thoughts on pe
pe is used to distribute total redox element
concentration among redox states, but often
not needed.
Possible measurements of total concentrations
of redox elements:

Fe, always Fe(2) except at low pH

Mn, always Mn(2)
As, consider other redox elements
Se, consider other redox elements
U, probably U(6)
V, probably V(5)

61

Final thoughts on pe
Use couples where available:
O(0)/O(-2)
N(5)/N(-3)
S(6)/S(-2)
Fe(3)/Fe(2)
As(5)/As(3)
62

Berners Redox Environments

Oxic
Suboxic
Sulfidic
Methanic

Thorstenson (1984)
63

64

Parkhurst and others (1996)

65

PHREEQC Programs
Current PHREEQC Version 2

Batch
GUI PhreeqcI
GUI Phreeqc For Windows (Vincent Post)

Current PHAST Version 2

Serial
Parallel chemistry

66

Future PHREEQC Programs

PHREEQC Version 3

Batch with Charting (done)

GUI PhreeqcI with Charting
IPhreeqc: scriptable (done)

PHAST

Serial (done)
Parallel transport and chemistry (done)
TVD
GUI PHAST for Windows

WEBMOD-Watershed reactive transport

67

More on Solution Definition

Charge Balance and Adjustment
to Phase Equilibrium

68

Charge Balance Options

For most analyses, just leave it
Adjust the major anion or cation
Adjust pH

69

SOLUTION Charge Balance

Select pH
or major
ion
No way to
specify
cation or
anion
70

Initial Solution 10. Exercises

1. Define a solution made by adding 1 mmol of NaHCO3 and 1
mmol Na2CO3 to a kilogram of water. What is the pH of the
solution?
Hint: The solution definition contains Na and C(4).
2. Define a solution made by adding 1 mmol of NaHCO3 and 1
mmol Na2CO3 to a kilogram of water that was then titrated to
pH 7 with pure HCl. How much chloride was added?
Hint: The solution definition contains Na, C, and Cl.

71

Initial Solution 10. Answers

1. pH = 10.1
2. Cl = 1.35 mmol

72

Adjustments to Phase Equilibrium

For most analyses, dont do it
The following are reasonable

Adjust concentrations to equilibrium with

atmosphere (O2, CO2)
Adjust pH to calcite equilibrium
Estimate aluminum concentration by
equilibrium with gibbsite or kaolinite
73

Adjusting to Phase Equilibrium with

SOLUTION
Select Phase
Add saturation
index for
mineral, log
partial
pressure for
gas
74

Adjusting to Phase Equilibrium with

SOLUTION_SPREAD
Select phase
Define SI or
log partial
pressure

75

UNITS in
SOLUTION_SPREAD
Dont forget to
set the
units!

76

Initial Solution 11. Exercise

Rainwater, Concentration in mg/L

Constituent
pH
Ca
Mg
Na
K
C(4)

Value
4.5
0.384
0.043
0.141
0.036
?

Constituent
Cl
S(6)
N(5)
N(-3)
P

Value
0.236
1.3
0.237
0.208
0.0003

1. Calculate the carbon concentration that would be in equilibrium

with the atmosphere (log PCO2 = -3.5).
77

Initial Solution 11. Answer

1.

Calculate the carbon concentration that would be in

equilibrium with the atmosphere (log PCO2 = -3.5).

1.1e-5 mol C per kilogram water

78

Initial Solution 12. Exercise

1. Calculate the pH and TDIC of a solution in
equilibrium with the PCO2 of air (10-3.5) at 25 C.
2. Calculate the pH and TDIC of a solution in
equilibrium with a soil-zone PCO2 of 10-2.0 at 25 C.
3. Calculate the pH and TDIC of a solution in
equilibrium with a soil-zone PCO2 of 10-2.0 at 10 C.

79

Initial Solution 12. Answers

[Link] = 5.66, TDIC = 13 umol/kgw
[Link] = 4.91, TDIC = 353 umol/kgw
[Link] = 4.87, TDIC = 552 umol/kgw

80

SATURATION INDEX

The thermodynamic state of a mineral relative to a solution

SI log 10( IAP / K )

IAP is ion activity product
K is equilibrium constant
2
3

SI Calcite log 10([Ca ][CO ] / K Calcite )

2
3

SI Calcite log 10([Ca ]) log 10([CO ]) log 10( K Calcite )

81

SATURATION INDEX
SI < 0, Mineral should dissolve
SI > 0, Mineral should precipitate
SI ~ 0, Mineral reacts fast enough to maintain
equilibrium
Maybe

Kinetics
Uncertainties
82

Rules for Saturation Indices

Mineral cannot dissolve if it is not present
If SI < 0 and mineral is presentthe mineral
could dissolve, but not precipitate
If SI > 0the mineral could precipitate, but not
dissolve
If SI ~ 0the mineral could dissolve or
precipitate to maintain equilibrium
83

Uncertainties in SI: Analytical data

5% uncertainty in element concentration
is .02 units in SI.

0.5 pH unit uncertainty is 0.5 units in SI of

calcite, 1.0 unit in dolomite

1 pe or pH unit uncertainty is 8 units in SI

of FeS for the following equation:

SI(FeS) = log[Fe+3]+log[SO4-2]-8pH-8pe-log K(FeS)

84

Uncertainties in SI: Equation

Much smaller uncertainty for SI(FeS)
with the following equation :

SI(FeS) = log[Fe+2]+log[HS-]+pH-log K(FeS)

For minerals with redox elements,

uncertainties are much smaller if the

valence states of the elements in
solution are measured.
85

Uncertainties in SI: Log K

Apatite from Stumm and Morgan:
Ca5(PO4)3(OH) = 5Ca+2 + 3PO4-3 + OH-

G 0r 5( 553.54) 3( 1018.8) ( 157.3) ( 6338.4) 357kJ / mol

0
357.0
G r
log K Apatite

62.6
RT 5.707

Apatite from Wateq: log K = -55.4

Log Ks especially uncertain for aluminosilicates

86

Useful Mineral List

Minerals that may react to equilibrium relatively quickly

Carbonates
CO2(g)
Calcite
Dolomite
Siderite
Rhodochrosite
Sulfates
Gypsum
Celestite
Barite
Sulfides
FeS(a)
Mackinawite

CO2
CaCO3
CaMgCO3
FeCO3
MnCO3
CaSO4
SrSO4
BaSO4
FeS
FeS

Phosphates
Hydroxyapatite
Vivianite
Oxyhydroxides
Fe(OH)3(a)
Goethite
Gibbsite
Birnessite
Manganite
Aluminosilicates
Silica gel
Silica glass
Chalcedony
Kaolinite

Ca5(PO4)3OH
Fe3(PO4)2
Fe(OH)3
FeOOH
Al(OH)3
MnO2
Mn(OH)3
SiO2-2H2O
SiO2-H2O
SiO2
87
Al2Si2O5(OH)

Initial Solution 13. Exercise

Examine solution compositions in spreadsheet
solution_spread.xls.
Calculate saturation indices using [Link].
Try out RunPhreeqc macro or copy/paste into
PhreeqcI.
What can you infer about the hydrologic setting,
mineralogy, and possible reactions for these
waters?
88

Solution_spread.xls + [Link]

89

Summary
Aqueous speciation model

Mole-balance equationsSum of species

containing Ca equals total analyzed Ca

Aqueous mass-action equationsActivity of

products over reactants equal a constant
Activity coefficient model

Ion association with individual activity coefficients

Pitzer specific interaction approach

SI=log(IAP/K)
90

Summary
SOLUTION and SOLUTION _SPREAD

Units
pHratio of HCO3/CO2
peratio of oxidized/reduced valence states
Charge balance
Phase boundaries

Saturation indices
Uncertainties
Useful minerals

Identify potential reactants

91