Module-2

1. Measurement and Scaling

2. Questionnaire Design
3. Sampling
4. Fieldwork
5. Data Preparation

Measurement and Scaling

Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale

Nominal Scale

The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying
objects.

When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence

between the numbers and the objects.

The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by

the objects.

The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is

counting.

Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency

counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.

Ordinal Scale
A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate
the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic
than some other object, but not how much more or less.
Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered
relationships between the objects.
In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale
data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles,
e.g., percentile, quartile, median.

Interval Scale

Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic
being measured.

It permits comparison of the differences between objects.

The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of
measurement are arbitrary.

Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the

properties of the scale.

It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.

Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to
nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation,
and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.

Ratio Scale
Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales.
It has an absolute zero point.
It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a
positive constant, are allowed.
All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques

Non-comparative
Scales

Comparative
Scales

Paired
Compariso
n

Rank
Order

Constant
Sum

Q-Sort and
Other
Procedures

Likert

Continuous
Rating Scales

Semantic
Differential

Itemized
Rating Scales

Stapel

Comparative scales
Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of
stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be
interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or
rank order properties.

Noncomparative scales
In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled
independently of the others in the stimulus set. The
resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or
ratio scaled.

Comparative Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scaling Techniques

Paired Comparison Scaling
Rank Order Scaling
Constant Sum Scaling
Q-Sort Scaling

Paired Comparison Scaling

A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one
according to some criterion.
The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling
technique.
With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required.
Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired
comparison data to a rank order.

Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously
and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion.
It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in
an absolute sense.
Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.
Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.

Rank Order Scaling

Brand

Rank Order

1. Pepsodent

_________

2. Colgate

_________

3. Close Up

_________

4. Thermoseal

_________

5. Sensodyne

_________

Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to
attributes of a product to reflect their importance.
If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points.
If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it
receives twice as many points.
The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.

Q-Sort Scaling

This technique uses a rank order procedure in which objects are sorted into
piles based on similarity with respect to some criterion.

For example, respondents are given 100 attitude statement on individual

cards and asked to place them into 11 piles, ranging from most highly
agreed with to least highly agreed with.

The number of objects to be sorted should not be less than 60 nor more
than 140; 60 to 90 objects is a reasonable range.

Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and
for this reason non-comparative scales are often
referred to as monadic scales.
Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous
and itemized rating scales.

Continuous Rating Scale

How would you rate Saharaganj as a shopping mall?
Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best

Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
0 10 20
30 40
50
60 70
80
90
100

Version 3
Very bad

Neither good
Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
0 10 20
30
40
50
60 70
80
90
100

Itemized Rating Scales

Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Staple Scale

Itemized Rating Scales

The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief
description associated with each category.
The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the
respondents are required to select the specified category that best
describes the object being rated.

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of
agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the
stimulus objects.

Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Neither
agree nor
disagree

Agree

Strongly
agree

1. Saharaganj sells high-quality merchandise.

2X

2. Saharaganj has poor in-store service.

2X

3. I like to shop at Saharaganj .

3X

Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points
associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
Saharaganj is:
Powerful

--:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak

Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable

Modern

--:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from
-5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented
vertically.

Saharaganj
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
HIGH QUALITY
-1
-2
-3
-4X
-5

+5
+4
+3
+2X
+1
POOR SERVICE
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same
way as semantic differential data.

Scale Evaluation
Scale Evaluation

Reliability

Test/
Retest

Alternative
Forms

Validity

Internal
Consistency

Content

Convergent

Criterion

Generalizability

Construct

Discriminant

Nomological

Reliability

Reliability
Test-retest reliability
Alternative-forms reliability
Internal consistency reliability

Test-retest reliability
In

test-retest

reliability,

respondents

are

administered identical sets of scale items at two

different times and the degree of similarity between
the two measurements is determined

Alternative-forms reliability
In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent
forms of the scale are constructed and the same
respondents are measured at two different times, with
a different form being used each time.

Internal consistency reliability

Internal consistency reliability determines the
extent to which different parts of a summated scale
are consistent in what they indicate about the
characteristic being measured.

Validity

Validity
The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent
to which differences in observed scale scores reflect
true differences among objects on the characteristic
being measured, rather than systematic or random
error.

Perfect validity requires that there be no

measurement error (XO = XT, XR = 0, XS = 0).

Validity
Content validity
Criterion validity
Construct validity
Convergent validity
Discriminant validity
Nomological validity

Content validity
Content validity is a subjective but systematic
evaluation of how well the content of a scale
represents the measurement task at hand.

Criterion validity
Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs
as expected in relation to other variables selected
(criterion variables) as meaningful criteria.

Construct validity
Construct validity addresses the question of what
construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact,
measuring. Construct validity includes convergent,
discriminant, and nomological validity.

Convergent validity
Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale
correlates positively with other measures of the same
construct.

Discriminant validity
Discriminant validity is the extent to which a
measure does not correlate with other constructs from
which it is supposed to differ.

Nomological validity
Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale
correlates in theoretically predicted ways with
measures of different but related constructs.

Questionnaire Design

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a formalized set of
questions for obtaining information from
respondents.

Questionnaire Design Process

Specify the Information
Needed
Specify the Type of Interviewing Method
Determine the Content of Individual Questions
Design the Question to Overcome the Respondents Inability and
Unwillingness to Answer
Decide the Question Structure
Determine the Question Wording
Arrange the Questions in Proper Order
Identify the Form and Layout
Reproduce the Questionnaire
Eliminate Bugs by Pre-testing

Sampling: Design and Procedures

The Sampling Design

Process
Define the Population

Determine the Sampling Frame

Select Sampling Technique(s)
Determine the Sample Size
Execute the Sampling Process

Classification of Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Non-probability
Sampling Techniques

Convenience
Sampling

Judgmental
Sampling

Simple Random
Sampling

Systematic
Sampling

Probability
Sampling Techniques

Quota
Sampling

Stratified
Sampling

Snowball
Sampling

Cluster
Sampling

Other Sampling
Techniques

Fieldwork

Fieldwork/Data Collection Process

Selecting Field Workers

Training Field Workers
Supervising Field Workers
Validating Fieldwork
Evaluating Field Workers

Data Preparation

Data Preparation Process

Prepare Preliminary Plan of Data Analysis
Check Questionnaire
Edit
Code
Transcribe
Clean Data
Statistically Adjust the Data
Select Data Analysis Strategy

SPSS Variable View of the Data of Table