You are Welcome
to
Basic Radiation Training Course
Pl
ee l
F
e
eas
d!
e
x
Rela
Training Lecture Time Table
DAY 1
Lecture 1
Basic Radiation Physics
Lecture 2
Radiation Quantities and Source Handling
Lecture 3
Radiation Detection and Measurements
Lecture 4
Radiation Protection and Control
DAY 2
Test
Brief Test
Lecture 5
Biological Effects of Radiation
Lecture 6
Safe Transport of radioactive materials
Lecture 7
NNRA Regulation for Well Logging
Basic Radiation Physics
Radiation
Means transfer (propagation) of energy from source into space
This energy is emitted from the nucleus or electron shells of certain atoms.
Radiation delivers energy to materials that it encounters on its way
A nuclide (atom) that spontaneously emits radiation from its nucleus is
called a radioactive nuclide.
The principal types of radiation that come from the nucleus are: alpha (),
beta (), gamma () and neutron (n).
The principal types of radiation from electron shells are: X-rays.
Other types of radiation, but not ionizing, are Radio waves, microwaves,
UV and Visible light.
Radiation
There are man-made sources of radiation but most of the
radiation comes from non-man-made sources.
Applications of radiation are numerous and unbeatable
Absorption of such energy could be harmful to a biological
medium
Need for Protection and Safety.
Awareness is quite essential to protection.
This is the reason for this training.
Radioactive material
Substance made up wholly or in part of
radioactive atoms (radioisotopes or
radionuclides)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
electron
Important
properties
Particle Symbol Mass
Energy
Charge
(kg)
(MeV)
-----------------------------------------------------------Proton
p 1.672 10-27 938.2
e+
Neutron n 1.675 10 -27 939.2
0
Electron e
0.911 10 -30 0.511
e-
Nucleus:
Made up of
protons and
Neutrons
Ionization, Excitation and De-excitation
The absorbed energy
removes one or more
electrons from the atom
Energy
The absorbed energy
moves one or more
electrons to shells of
higher energy.
Nuclear Properties:
Forces in the Nucleus and Nuclear stability
1. long ranged
electrostatic
forces
p
n
2. short ranged
nuclear forces
Unstable nuclides
Too many
neutrons
Too many
protons
FORMS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Fission
The nucleus is divided into two parts, fission fragments and
3-4 neutrons produced. Examples: Cf-252 (spontaneous), U-235
(induced)
-decay
The nucleus emits an -particle (He-4). Examples: Ra-226, Rn-222
-decay
226
86
4
Ra 222
Rn+
84
2
Too many neutrons results in -decay. n
Example:H-3, C-14, I-131.
p++ e- + .
Too many protons results in -decay or electron capture (EC).
p+
n + e ++
or
p + + en+
Examples: O-16, F-18 and I-125, Tl-201
Gamma Decay - De-excitation of the nucleus
not a primary mode of decay but always accompanies all types of
decay
Gamma rays are emitted during energy level transitions in the
nucleus after an excitation
alpha-particle
beta-particle
Gamma radiation
NATURE AND SOURCES OF GAMMA RAYS
Gamma rays are similar in their characteristics to x-rays. They are
distinguished from x-rays only by their source, rather than by their
nature. Unlike gamma rays, X-ray emission can be controlled.
Gamma rays are emitted from the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive
substances, and the quality (wavelength or penetration) and intensity of
the radiation cannot be controlled by the user.
Some gamma-ray-emitting radioactive isotopes, such as radium, occur
naturally. Others like Co-60 and Ir-192 are artificially produced.
In industrial radiography, the artificial radioactive isotopes are used
almost exclusively as sources of gamma radiation. X-rays are used in
industrial radiography where there is an advantage over gamma rays.
ACTIVITY Strength of a Source
The
Thenumber
numberof
of decaying
decayingnuclei
nucleiper
perunit
unitof
oftime
time
11Bq
Bq(Becquerel)
(Becquerel)==1dps
1dpsper
persecond
second
It is much smaller than the old unit, the curie (Ci).
1 Ci = 3.71010 Bq. The typical Ir-192 radiographic
source is about 30 Ci. This is 1.1 1012 Bq or 1.1 TBq
The curie is the activity of 1g of Ra 226.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
It is impossible to know at what time a certain radioactive nucleus
will decay. It is, however possible to determine the probability
of decay in a certain time. In a sample of N nuclei the number of
decays per unit time is then:
dN
N
dt
- t
N(t) =N 0 e
T1/2
ln2
Example
A Ao e 0.693t / T1 / 2
If
Ao 50Ci
T1/ 2 74days
t 10months 300days
A 50 e
0.693300 / 74
2.81
3.033Ci
Calculations like this are done preferably with a
computer for different values of t. The series of values
of A obtained form what is called a decay chart
Shorter Method
A = Ao/ 2N
N = t / T (in the same units )
Ao = original number or activity of atoms,
A = number remaining at time t
t = decay time,
T = half-life of the radioisotope,
For the previous example, t =300 days
N = 300/74 = 4.05,
A = 50/24.05 = 50/16.56
= 3.02 Ci
Natural Radioactivity
There are 4 categories of natural
radiation (also called background
radiation) that affect mankind:
*
Cosmic Radiation
*
Terrestrial Radiation
*
Radioactive material inside the
human body
*
Radon
Cosmic Radiation
They reach the earth from space and from the sun.
The primary cosmic radiation that impinges on the earth
consists of Protons (87%), alpha particles (11%), heavy
ions (1%) and electrons (1%).
Secondary cosmic radiation (electrons, gamma rays,
neutrons, etc) are produced from interaction of primary
ones with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere.
The interaction also produces radionuclides (e.g. C-14) that
diffuse to lower atmosphere and are incorporated in water
and living matter, and enter our bodies via food and water.
Terrestrial Radiation
They are external radiation that occur naturally in the earths crust
and other materials on earth.
Among these are the primordial elements 238U, 232Th and 40K which
are radioactive with half-lives comparable with the age of the earth.
They therefore still exist in small amounts in the earth, soil and
rocks. Both 238U and 232Th have long decay series with members
(226Ra, 222Rn, 214Bi etc.), all of which are radioactive.
Radiations emitted by these three elements and members of the
decay chains present within 15 - 30cm topsoil reach the earth
surface.
Radioactive Material inside Human
Body
Through Inhalation and Ingestion, our
bodies incorporate naturally occurring
radionuclides from two sources:
* Primordial radionuclides and their
decay products
* Radionuclides produced by cosmic
radiation
Radon
Radon is a gas emanating from the earths
crust and building materials.
Man-made Sources of Radiation
There are many man made sources of
radiation used for different purposes.
Examples are Cf-252, Am/Be, Co-60 and
Ir-192
Man Made Radioactivity
When a combination of neutrons and protons, which does
not already exist in nature, is produced artificially, the atom
will become unstable and is called a radioactive isotope or
radioisotope.
An examples are 192Ir and 60Co - artificial radionuclides produced in
a nuclear reactor.
Co + 1n
59
Co and
60
Ir + 1n
191
192
Ir
These are gamma radiation emitters most suitable for industrial
radiography because they are rich in gamma yield of appropriate
penetration energy and have short half lives which make them safe
in case of loss or theft
Sources and distribution of average radiation
exposure to the world population
Production of Radiation for Industrial Radiography
Industrial radiography uses two sources of radiation:
X-radiation and Gamma radiation.
X-rays and Gamma rays differ only in their source of origin.
X-rays are produced by an X-ray generator,
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms.
Electromagnetic energy spectrum
Wavelength Increase
Energy Increase
Penetrations of Ionizing Radiations
Both alpha and beta particle lose their energy in a large number of ionization
and excitation events
The range in air of the most energetic alpha particles commonly encountered
is about 10 centimeters (4 inches). In denser materials, the range is much less.
Alpha particles are easily stopped by a sheet of paper or the protective (dead)
layers of skin. The only problem is when the particles are in the body through
ingestion in contaminated for or inhalation through polluted air
Due to the smaller mass, higher velocity and single charge of the beta particle,
the range of a beta is considerably greater than that of an alpha. Up to 1 m in
air and can be effectively shielded with a thin sheet of paper or plastic.
Dangerous when ingested.
Gamma or x-ray photons have no definite maximum range. However, the total
fraction of photons passing through an absorber decreases exponentially with
the thickness of the absorber.
Need For Safety Standards
Advantages are unfortunately accompanied by the
disadvantages of radiation hazard and hence, the need for
safety measures.
International Commission of Radiological Protection (ICRP),
World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations
Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) etc. (International Level)
The NNRA (National Level)
Safety Officers (Practice/User/Client Level)
Every Worker
(Personal Level)
NNRA Requirement for Training
To create the essential awareness about the
need for safety precautions in the operations of
radiation sources as opposed to creating fear in
the operators and the general public
