The Economics of
Labor Markets
Chapter 18
Copyright 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
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Factors of Production
Factors of production are the
inputs used to produce goods
and services.
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The Market for the Factors of
Production
The demand for a factor of
production is a derived demand.
A firms demand for a factor of
production is derived from its
decision to supply a good in
another market.
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The Demand for Labor
Labor markets, like other markets
in the economy, are governed by the
forces of supply and demand.
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The Versatility of Supply and
Demand...
(a) The Market for Apples
(b) The Market for Apple Pickers
Price
of
Apples
Wage
of
Supply
Apple
Pickers
Supply
Deman
d
Deman
d
0
Quantity
of
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Quantity of
Apple
The Demand For Labor
Most labor services, rather than
being final goods ready to be enjoyed
by consumers, are inputs into the
production of other goods.
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The Production Function and
The Marginal Product of Labor
The production function illustrates the
relationship between the quantity of
inputs used and the quantity of output
of a good.
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MPLQ/L ProfitVMPLW
How the Competitive Firm Decides
How Much Labor to Hire
Labor
L
0
1
2
3
4
5
Output
Q
0
100
180
240
280
300
Marginal
Product
of Labor
MPL
Value of the
Marginal
Product
of Labor
VMPL=PxMPL
Wage
W
100
80
60
40
20
$1,000
$800
$600
$400
$200
$500
$500
$500
$500
$500
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Marginal Profit
$500
$300
$100
-$100
-$300
The Production Function...
350
300
5
4
250
Quantity of
Apples
200
2
150
100
50
0
0
0
Quantity of Apple Pickers
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The Production Function and The
Marginal Product of Labor
The marginal product of labor is
the increase in the amount of
output from an additional unit of
labor.
MPL = Q/L
MPL = (Q2 Q1)/(L2
L1)
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Diminishing Marginal Product
of Labor
As the number of workers increases, the
marginal product of labor declines.
As more and more workers are hired,
each additional worker contributes less
to production than the prior one.
The production function becomes flatter
as the number of workers rises.
This property is called diminishing
marginal product.
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The Production Function...
350
300
5
4
250
Quantity of
Apples
200
2
150
100
50
0
0
0
Quantity of Apple Pickers
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The Value of the Marginal
Product of Labor
The
value of the marginal product is
the marginal product of the input
multiplied by the market price of the
output.
VMPL = MPL X P
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The Value of the Marginal
Product of Labor
The
value of the marginal product is
measured in dollars.
It diminishes as the number of
workers rises because the market
price of the good is constant.
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The Value of the Marginal Product
and the Demand for Labor
To maximize profit, the competitive,
profit-maximizing firm hires workers up
to the point where the value of marginal
product of labor equals the wage.
VMPL = Wage
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The Value of the Marginal Product
and the Demand for Labor
The value-of-marginal-product curve
is the labor demand curve for a
competitive, profit-maximizing firm.
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The Value of the Marginal Product
of Labor...
Value of
the
Marginal
Product
Market
wage
Value of marginal product
(demand curve for labor)
0
Profit-maximizing
quantity
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Quantity of
Apple Pickers
Input Demand and Output
Supply
When a competitive firm hires labor up to
the point at which the value of the
marginal product equals the wage, it also
produces up to the point at which the price
equals the marginal cost.
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What Causes the Labor
Demand Curve to Shift?
Output
Price
Technological Change
Supply of Other factors
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The Labor Supply Curve
The labor supply curve reflects how
workers decisions about the labor-leisure
tradeoff respond to changes in
opportunity cost.
An upward-sloping labor supply curve
means that an increase in the wages
induces workers to increase the quantity
of labor they supply.
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The Labor Supply Curve
Wage
(price of
labor)
0
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Supply
Quantity of
Labor
What Causes the Labor Supply
Curve to Shift?
Changes
in Tastes
Changes in Alternative
Opportunities
Immigration
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Equilibrium in the Labor
Market
The
wage adjusts to balance the
supply and demand for labor.
The wage equals the value of the
marginal product of labor.
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Equilibrium in the Labor
Market...
Wage
(price of
labor)
Supply
Equilibriu
m wage,
W
Deman
d
Equilibrium
employment, L
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Quantity of
Labor
Equilibrium in the Labor
Market
Labor
supply and labor demand
determine the equilibrium wage.
Shifts in the supply or demand
curve for labor cause the
equilibrium wage to change.
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A Shift in Labor Supply...
Wage
(price of
labor)
Supply, S1 1. An increase in
labor supply...
S2
W1
W2
2. ...reduces
the wage...
Demand
3. ...and raises employmen
0
L1
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L2
Quantity of
Labor
A Shift in Labor Supply
An increase in the supply of labor :
Results in a surplus of labor.
Puts downward pressure on wages.
Makes it profitable for firms to hire more
workers.
Results in diminishing marginal product.
Lowers the value of the marginal product.
Gives a new equilibrium.
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A Shift in Labor Demand...
Wage
(price of
labor)
Supply
W2
1. An increase in
labor demand...
W1
2. ...increases
the wage...
D2
Demand, D1
L1
Quantity of
Labor
3. ...and increases employment.
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L2
Shifts in Labor Demand
An increase in the demand for labor :
Makes
it profitable for firms to hire more
workers.
Puts upward pressure on wages.
Raises the value of the marginal product.
Gives a new equilibrium.
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Three Determinants of
Productivity
Physical
When workers work with a larger quantity of
equipment and structures, they produce more.
Human
Capital
Capital
When workers are more educated, they produce
more.
Technological
Knowledge
When workers have access to more sophisticated
technologies, they produce more.
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Productivity and Wage Growth
in the United States
Time Period
Growth Rate of
Productivity
Growth Rate of
Wages
1959 - 1997
1959 - 1973
1973 - 1997
1.8
2.9
1.1
1.7
2.9
1.0
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Productivity and Wage Growth
around the World
Growth Rate
Growth Rate
of Real
Country
of Productivity
Wages
South Korea
8.5
7.9
Hong Kong
5.5
4.9
Singapore
5.3
5.0
Indonesia
4.0
4.4
Japan
3.6
2.0
India
3.1
3.4
United Kingdom
2.4
2.4
United States
1.7
0.5
Brazil
0.4
-2.4
Mexico
-0.2
-3.0
Argentina
-0.9
-1.3
Iran
-1.4
-7.9
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Other Factors of Production:
Land and Capital
Capital
refers to the stock of equipment
and structures used for production.
The
economys capital represents the
accumulation of goods produced in the past
that are being used in the present to
produce new goods and services.
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Prices of Land and Capital
The
purchase price is what a person
pays to own a factor of production
indefinitely.
The rental price is what a person pays
to use a factor of production for a
limited period of time.
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Equilibrium in Markets for
Land and Capital
The rental price of land and the rental
price of capital are determined by supply
and demand.
The firm increases the quantity hired until
the value of the factors marginal product
equals the factors price.
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The Markets for Land and
Capital...
(a) The Market for Land
Supply
Rental
Price
of Land
(b) The Market for Capital
Rental
Price
of
Capital
Supply
Deman
d
Deman
d
0
Quantity
of Land
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Quantity of
Capital
Equilibrium in Markets for
Land and Capital
Each
factors rental price must equal
the value of their marginal product.
They each earn the value of their
marginal contribution to the
production process.
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Linkages Among the Factors of
Production
Factors of production are used together.
The marginal product of any one
factor depends on the quantities of all
factors that are available.
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Linkages Among the Factors of
Production
A change in the supply of one
factor alters the earnings of all
the factors.
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Linkages Among the Factors of
Production
A change in earnings of any factor can
be found by analyzing the impact of
the event on the value of the marginal
product of that factor.
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Summary
The three most important factors of
production are labor, land, and capital.
The demand for factors, such as labor, is a
derived demand that comes from firms
that use the factors to produce goods and
services.
Competitive, profit-maximizing firms hire
each factor up to the point at which the
value of the marginal product of the factor
equals its price.
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Summary
The supply of labor arises from
individuals tradeoff between work and
leisure.
An upward-sloping labor supply curve
means that people respond to an
increase in the wage by enjoying less
leisure and working more hours.
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Summary
The price paid to each factor adjusts to
balance the supply and demand for that
factor.
Because factor demand reflects the value
of the marginal product of that factor, in
equilibrium each factor is compensated
according to its marginal contribution to
the production of goods and services.
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Summary
Because factors of production are used
together, the marginal product of any one
factor depends on the quantities of all
factors that are available.
As a result, a change in the supply of one
factor alters the equilibrium earnings of
all the factors.
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Graphical
Review
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The Versatility of Supply and
Demand...
(a) The Market for Apples
(b) The Market for Apple Pickers
Price
of
Apples
Wage
of
Supply
Apple
Pickers
Supply
Deman
d
Deman
d
0
Quantity
of
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Quantity of
Apple
The Production Function...
350
300
5
4
250
Quantity of
Apples
200
2
150
100
50
0
0
0
Quantity of Apple Pickers
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The Value of the Marginal Product
of Labor...
Value of
the
Marginal
Product
Market
wage
Value of marginal product
(demand curve for labor)
0
Profit-maximizing
quantity
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Quantity of
Apple Pickers
The Labor Supply Curve
Wage
(price of
labor)
0
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Supply
Quantity of
Labor
Equilibrium in the Labor
Market...
Wage
(price of
labor)
Supply
Equilibriu
m wage,
W
Deman
d
Equilibrium
employment, L
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Quantity of
Labor
A Shift in Labor Supply...
Wage
(price of
labor)
Supply, S1 1. An increase in
labor supply...
S2
W1
W2
2. ...reduces
the wage...
Demand
3. ...and raises employmen
0
L1
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L2
Quantity of
Labor
A Shift in Labor Demand...
Wage
(price of
labor)
Supply
W2
1. An increase in
labor demand...
W1
2. ...increases
the wage...
D2
Demand, D1
L1
Quantity of
Labor
3. ...and increases employment.
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L2
The Markets for Land and
Capital...
(a) The Market for Land
Supply
Rental
Price
of Land
(b) The Market for Capital
Rental
Price
of
Capital
Supply
Deman
d
Deman
d
0
Quantity
of Land
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Quantity of
Capital