Stephenn L.

Rabano, PECE

VECTOR CALCULUS

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

3-space is the space of 3 dimensions with the

usual measurement of distance given by

Pythagorean theorem.
This topic also includes the 2-space (the
plane) as a special case.
Differential calculus is extended in this topic
to vector functions and vector fields
represented by the said spaces.

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

Some applications of the algebra, geometry,

and calculus of vector functions to engineers

and physicists: solid mechanics, fluid flow,
heat flow, electrostatics.
For engineers, understanding vector
functions and fields are basis of the design
and construction of systems (e.g. airplanes,
laser generators, and robots).

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

3 physically important concepts related to

scalar and vector fields are: gradient,

divergence, and curl.
Topic requirement: second- and third-order
determinants

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

Scalars and vectors are 2 kinds of quantities

used in engineering applications.

A scalar is a quantity determined by its
magnitude, the number of units measured
on a suitable scale (e.g. length, voltage, and
temperature).
A vector is a quantity determined by both its
magnitude and its direction, represented by
an arrow or directed line segment (e.g.
force, velocity, and acceleration).

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

Vectors are denoted by lowercase boldface

letters a, b, v, etc.
Arrows are used in handwriting vectors:
in place of a
A vector (arrow) has a tail called its initial
point, and a tip called its terminal point.
Length (magnitude, norm, or Euclidean
norm) of the said vector is the distance
between the said two points.

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

A vector of length 1 is a unit vector.
Equality of vectors: 2 vectors a and b are

equal, written a = b, if they have the same

length and the same direction.
A vector can be arbitrarily translated, i.e., its
initial point can be chosen arbitrarily.
Consider the vectors shown in the next slide.

Vectors in 2-Space and 3Space

Scalar and Vector Fields

A field is a function that specifies a particular

quantity everywhere in a region.

If the quantity is a scalar, the field is a scalar
field.
Examples: temperature distribution in a
building, sound intensity in a theater, electric
potential in a region, refractive index of a
stratified medium

Scalar and Vector Fields

If the quantity is a vector, the field is a vector

field.
Examples: gravitational force on a body in
space, velocity of raindrops in the
atmosphere

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System
This is the simplest of the three methods (to be
discussed) in describing a vector accurately

(there must be some specific lengths, directions,

angles, projections, or components that must be
given).
Three coordinate axes (x, y, and z) are set up
mutually at right angles to each other.
A right-handed coordinate system is chosen in
which a rotation (through the smaller angle) of
the x axis into the y axis would cause a righthanded screw to progress in the direction of the
z axis.

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System
Using the right hand, the thumb, forefinger,

and middle finger may represent,

respectively, the x, y, and z axes.
A point, represented by (x, y, z), is located
through its x, y, and z coordinates.
Coordinates are the distances from the origin
to the intersection of a perpendicular
dropped from the point to the x, y, and z
axes.

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System
In other terms, the point must be considered

as being at the common intersection of three

surfaces defined as x = constant, y = constant,
and z = constant, wherein the constants are
the corresponding coordinate values of the
point.
Example: Plot the points P(1, 2, 3) and
Q(2, -2, 1).

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System
A differential volume element can be

obtained by visualizing three planes

intersecting at the general point P, with
coordinates x, y, and z.
Each coordinate value is increased by a
differential amount, obtaining three slightly
displaced planes intersecting at point P with
coordinates x + dx, y + dy, and z + dz.
The said six planes define a rectangular
parallelepiped whose volume is dv = dxdydz.

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System
Differential volume element in cartesian

coordinates (dx, dy, and dz are independent

differentials):

Cartesian (Rectangular)
Coordinate System
The surfaces of such parallelepiped have

differential areas dS of dxdy, dydz, and dzdx.

The distance dL from P to P is the diagonal of
the parallelepiped with length of

(dx) (dy) (dz)

2

A Review on Vector Algebra

Vectorial addition follows the parallelogram

law (accomplished graphically):

A Review on Vector Algebra

Algebraic laws obeyed by vector addition:
Commutative law: A + B = B + A
Associative law: A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

When a vector is drawn as an arrow of finite

length, its location is defined to be at the tail end
of the arrow.
Coplanar vectors (vectors lying in a common
plane) may also be added by expressing each
vector in terms of horizontal and vertical

components and adding the corresponding

components.

A Review on Vector Algebra

Vectors in 3D may also be added by expressing
the vectors in terms of three components and

adding the corresponding components.

Subtraction of vectors follows easily from that
for addition: A B = A + (B)
Vectors may be multiplied by scalars: the
magnitude of the vector changes but the
direction does not when the scalar is positive;
the vector reverses direction when multiplied by
a negative scalar.

A Review on Vector Algebra

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar also

obeys associative and distributive laws of

algebra:
(r + s)(A + B) = r(A + B) + s(A + B)
= rA + rB + sA + sB
Division of a vector by a scalar is merely
multiplication by the reciprocal of the scalar.
Two equal vectors have a difference of zero:
A = B if A B = 0

Component Vectors
and Unit Vectors
Consider a vector r extending outward from

the origin.
Logically, the vector is the vector sum of
three component vectors lying along the
three coordinate axes.
Magnitudes of component vectors depend on
the given vector, each having a known and
constant direction.

Component Vectors
and Unit Vectors

Component Vectors
and Unit Vectors
A unit vector has a unit magnitude and is

directed along the coordinate axis in the

direction of the increasing coordinate values.
Notation for a unit vector: a
Unit vectors (cartesian coordinate system):
ax, ay, az
Such vectors are directed along the x, y, and z
axes, respectively.

Component Vectors
and Unit Vectors

Other notation of unit vectors: i, j, k

Position Vectors

The position vector (or radius vector) rP of point

P is the directed distance from the origin O to P,

and is written rP = ax + 2ay +3az.

Example: What is the position vector of Q?

Distance Vectors
A distance vector (or separation vector) is a

displacement from one point to another.

The distance vector RPQ may be obtained by vector
addition: the position vector of P plus the distance
vector from P to Q (RPQ) is equal to the position
vector of Q.
Consequently,
RPQ = rQ rP = (2 1)ax + (2 2)ay + (1 3)az
= ax 4ay 2az
This vector does not extend outward from the origin
but vectors having the same magnitude and pointing
in the same direction are equal.

Components of a Vector
By visualization, the idea is to slide any vector

over to the origin before determining its

component vectors, maintaining parallelism.
Any vector A may be described by
A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz
Ax, Ay, Az and are called the components of A
in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.
The magnitude of A, denoted by A , is
defined by:
2
2
2

A ( Ax ) ( Ay ) ( Az )

Components of a Vector
A unit vector aA along A is defined as a vector

whose magnitude is unity and its direction is

along A:

A
aA
A

Example: If A = 10 ax 4 ay + 6 az and

B = 2 ax + ay, find the component of A

along ay, the magnitude of 3A B, and a
unit vector along A + 2B.

Components of a Vector
Example: For vectors B = 5 ax + 2 ay 6 az and

A = ax + 3 az, find the component of A along

ay, |A + B|, 5 A B, and a unit vector parallel
to 3 A + B.
Example: Points P and Q are located at (0, 2,
4) and (3, 1, 5). Calculate the position vector
P, the distance vector from P to Q, the
distance between P and Q, and a vector
parallel to PQ with magnitude of 10.

Components of a Vector
Example: Given points P(1, 3, 5), Q(2, 4, 6),

and R(0, 3, 8), find: (a) the position vectors of

P and R, (b) the distance vector rQR, (c) the
distance between Q and R.

Vector Fields
Recall that a vector field is defined as a vector

function of a position vector.

Generally, the magnitude and direction of the
function will change as we move throughout
the region.
The value of the vector function must be
determined using the coordinate values of
the point in question.

Vector Fields
In cartesian coordinate system, the vector is

expected to be a function of the variables x, y,

and z.
If the position vector is represented as r, a
vector field G will be expressed in functional
notation as G(r).
A scalar field T will be expressed as T(r).

Vector Fields
Example: A vector field S is expressed in

cartesian coordinates as
125 ( x 1)ax (y 2)ay ( z 1)az .
S
( x 1)2 (y 2) 2 ( z 1) 2
Evaluate S at P(2, 4, 3). Determine a unit
vector that gives the direction of S at P.
Specify the surface f(x, y, z) on which S = 1.

Vector Multiplication
Dot product is the first of two types of vector

multiplication.
The other terms for dot product: scalar
product, inner product.
Given two vectors A and B, it is geometrically
defined as the product of the magnitude of A,
the magnitude of B, and the cosine of the
smaller angle between them.

Vector Multiplication
Dot product obeys commutative law since

the sign of the angle does not affect the

cosine term:
The expression in the left side of the equation
above is read as A dot B.
Example: Obtain all possible dot products of
rectangular coordinate system unit vectors.
Example: Obtain the dot product of
A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz and
B = Bxax + Byay + Bzaz

Vector Multiplication
Example: Obtain the dot product of the

previous example using matrix multiplication.

Let the components of the vectors be the
elements of the two matrices for the two
vectors, respectively.
Example: Given vectors A = 3 ax + 4 ay + az and
B = 2 ay 5 az, find the dot product of A and
B.

Vector Multiplication
For two vectors A and B, the cross product or
vector product of A and B is written with a cross

between the two vectors as A x B and read A

cross B.
The result of such operation is a vector whose
magnitude is equal to the product of the
magnitudes of A and B, and the sine of the
smaller angle between A and B; the direction of
which is perpendicular to the plane containing A
and B and is along one of two possible
perpendiculars in the direction of advance of a
right-handed screw as A is turned into B.

Vector Multiplication

Vector Multiplication
To determine the plane containing both

vectors, note that either vector may be

moved (maintaining constant direction) until
both have a common origin.
In equation form,
The subscript N stands for normal.

Vector Multiplication
Cross product is not commutative:

B A (A B)
Example: Find all possible cross products of
unit vectors ax, ay, and az. They must show
alphabetic symmetry.
Application: The magnitude of the cross
product of any two vectors is the area of the
parallelogram taking the given vectors as
adjacent sides.

Vector Multiplication
Example: Obtain two cross products of

A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz

and B = Bxax + Byay + Bzaz
Example: Show that the result obtained in the
previous example is also the result that will be
obtained by the expression below.

Vector Multiplication
Example: Find A x B and B x A given vectors A

and B below.

A = 2ax 3ay + az
B = 4ax 2ay + 5az
Example: A triangle has vertices A(6, 1, 2),
B(2, 3, 4), and C(3, 1, 5). Find RAB x RAC, the
area of the triangle, and a unit vector
perpendicular to the plane containing the
triangle.

Vector Multiplication
For A, B, and C, the scalar triple product is

defined by
A (B X C) = B (C X A) = C (A X B).
The result is a scalar as indicated by its name.
Note that such multiplication is done in cyclic
permutation.

Vector Multiplication
Example: Prove that the scalar triple product

is the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped

having the magnitudes of A, B, and C as the
edges (length of the sides).
Example: Prove that

Vector Triple Product

For A, B, and C, the vector triple product is

defined by
A X (B X C) = B (A C) C (A B).
Notice that multiplication is done using the
"bac-cab" rule.
In general, note that (A B) C A (B C) and
(A B) C = C (A B).

Projection (Component) of a
Vector in a Given Direction
This is a direct application of dot product.
It may either be a scalar projection

(component) or a vector projection

(component).
Given a vector A, the scalar projection of A
along vector B (AB) is defined as
AB = A aB = |A| |aB| cos AB = |A| cos AB

Projection (Component) of a
Vector in a Given Direction
The vector projection of A along vector B (AB)

is the scalar component multiplied by a unit

vector along B:
AB = (A aB)aB

Projection (Component) of a
Vector in a Given Direction
Example: Let E = 3ay + 4az, and

F = 4ax 10ay + 5az.

(a) Find the scalar and vector components
of E along F.
(b) Determine a unit vector perpendicular
to both E and F.

Projection (Component) of a
Vector in a Given Direction
Example: Three field quantities are given by

P = 2ax az
Q = 2ax ay + 2 az
R = 2ax 3ay + az
Determine: (a) (P + Q) X (P Q); (b) Q R X P;
(c) P Q X R; (d) sin QR; (e) P X (Q X R);
(f) a unit vector perpendicular to both Q and
R; (g) the component of P along Q.

Projection (Component) of a
Vector in a Given Direction
Example: Show that vectors A = 4ax az,

B = ax + 3ay + 4az, and C = 5ax 3ay 3az

form the sides of a triangle. Is this a right
triangle? Calculate the area of the triangle.
Example: Show that points P1(5, 2, 4),
P2(1, 1, 2), and P3(3, 0, 8) all lie on a
straight line. Determine the shortest
distance between the line and point
P4(3, 1, 0).

Projection (Component) of a
Vector in a Given Direction
Example: Given P1(1, 2, 3) and P2(3, 0, 8),

find the distance P1P2, the vector equation of

the line P1P2, and the shortest distance
between the line P1P2 and P3(7, 1, 2).

Division of Vectors
The division of vectors A/B is undefined

except when A and B are parallel so that A =

kB where k is a constant.
This also implies that A is proportional to B
and k is their quotient.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
The circular cylindrical coordinate system is

the 3D version of the polar coordinates of

analytic geometry.
Recall that a point in 2D polar coordinates is
located in a plane by a given distance from
the origin and the angle between the line
segment from the point to the origin and an
arbitrary radial line taken as = 0 (+x axis).

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Circular cylindrical coordinates, on the other

hand, is obtained by a specified distance z of

the point from an arbitrary z = 0 reference
plane perpendicular to the line = 0.
Any point is an intersection of three mutually
perpendicular surfaces: = constant (circular
cylinder), = constant (a plane), z = constant
(another plane).

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
The point defined also corresponds to the

location of a point in Cartesian coordinate

system.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
The unit vector a at a point is directed

radially outward, normal to cylindrical surface

= 1, and lies in the planes = 1 and z = z1.
The unit vector a is normal to the plane =
1, points in the direction of increasing , lies
in the plane z = z1, and is tangent to the
cylindrical surface = 1.
The unit vector az is the same with that of the
cartesian coordinate system.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Unit vectors in cartesian coordinates are not

functions of the coordinates.

In cylindrical coordinates, a and a vary with
the coordinate since their directions
change with .
Consequently, a and a must not be treated
as constants when integrating and
differentiating with respect to .

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Unit vectors are mutually perpendicular since

each is normal to one of the three mutually

perpendicular surfaces.
A differential volume element has the shape
of a truncated wedge as shown in the next
figure.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
As the element becomes very small, the

shape approaches to being a rectangular

parallelepiped having sides of length d, d,
and dz.
Note that d is the length (of an arc), not
d.
Rectangular and cylindrical coordinate
system variables are related to each other as
will be shown in the next figure.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
A vector in cylindrical components is given by

A = Aa + Aa + Azaz where each

component is a function of , , and z.
Recall that to find a desired component of a
vector in a desired direction, the dot product
of the vector and a unit vector in the desired
direction must be obtained.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Therefore, to find the cylindrical vector

components of a vector A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz,

the following equations hold:
A = A a
A = A a
By expansion,

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Dot products of unit vectors in cartesian and

cylindrical coordinate systems:

Recall that dot product is commutative.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Example: Transform B = yax xay + zaz into

cylindrical coordinates.
Example: Give the cartesian coordinates of
the point C( = 4.4, = 115, z = 2). Give the
cylindrical coordinates of the point D(x = 3.1,
y = 2.6, z = 3). Specify the distance from C to
D.

Circular Cylindrical
Coordinates
Example: Transform each to cylindrical

coordinates: (a) F = 10ax 8ay + 6az at point

P(10, 8, 6); (b) G = (2x + y)ax (y 4x)ay at
point Q(, , z).
Example: Give the Cartesian components of
the vector H = 20a 10a + 3az at P(5, 2, 1).

Spherical Coordinate System

Spherical Coordinate System

From spherical to cartesian:

x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
Dot products of unit vectors in cartesian and
spherical coordinate systems:

Spherical Coordinate System

From cartesian to spherical:

Orthogonal System
An orthogonal system is a system in which

the coordinates are mutually perpendicular.

Examples: Cartesian (or rectangular), circular
cylindrical, spherical, elliptic cylindrical,
parabolic cylindrical, conical, the prolate
spheroidal, the oblate spheroidal, and the
ellipsoidal.
In the second and third systems from the
examples, is the azimuthal angle and is
the colatitude.

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Cartesian)
Differential displacement:

dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az
Differential normal area:
dS = dy dz ax
dS = dx dz ay
dS = dx dy az

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Cartesian)
Note that the differential surface (or area)
element dS may generally be defined as

dS = dS an
where: dS = area of the surface element
an = unit vector normal to the
surface dS (directed away from the
volume if dS is part of the surface
describing a volume
Differential volume:
dv = dx dy dz

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Cylindrical)
Differential displacement:

dl = d a + d a + dz az
Differential normal area:
dS = d dz a
dS = d dz a
dS = d d az
Differential volume:
dv = d d dz

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Cylindrical)
Example: Consider the figure below and

calculate the following: distances BC and CD;

surface areas ABCD, ABO, and AOFD; and
volume ABDCFO.

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Spherical)
Differential displacement:

dl = dr ar + r d a + r sin d a
Differential normal area:
dS = r2 sin d d ar
dS = r sin dr d a
dS = r dr d a

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Spherical)
Differential volume:

dv = r2 sin dr d d
Example: In the next figure, disregard the
differential lengths and imagine that the
object is part of a spherical shell. It may be
described as 3 r 5, 60 90, 45
60, where surface r = 3 is the same as AEHD,
surface = 60 is AEFB, and surface = 45 is
ABCD.

Differential Length, Area,

and Volume (Spherical)
Calculate the distances DH and FG, the
surface areas AEHD and ABDC, and the
volume of the object.

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
In these integrals, the integrand involves a

vector.
Line (or curve or contour) means a path along
a curve in space.
A dl

The line integral

is
the
integral
of
L
the tangential component of A along curve L.
For a vector field A and a curve L, the integral
b

A dl
L

A cos dl

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
is defined as the line integral of A around L.

If the path of integration is a closed curve (abca in

the figure above), the line integral becomes a closed

contour integral as shown in the next slide.

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals

A dl
L

The integral above is called the circulation of

A around L.
For a vector field A, continuous in a region
containing the smooth surface S, the surface
integral or the flux of A through S is defined
as

A cos dS A an dS
S

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
or simply

A dS
S

The flux of a vector field A through surface S

is shown below.

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
Note that at any point on S, an is the unit

normal to S.
For a closed surface (defining a volume), the
surface integral becomes the net outward flux
of A from S defined by

A dS
S

Note that a closed path defines an open

surface; a closed surface defines a volume.

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
The integral

dv
v

is the volume integral of

the scalar v over the volume v.
The physical definition of a line, surface, or
volume integral depends on the nature of the
physical quantity represented by A or v.
Note also the previous definitions of dl, dS,
and dv in the three basic coordinate systems.
v

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
Example: Given F = x2ax xzay y2az,

calculate the circulation of F around the

closed path shown below.

Line, Surface, and Volume

Integrals
Example: Calculate the circulation of

G = cos a + z sin az around the edge

L of the wedge defined by 0 2, 0
60, z = 0 and shown below.

Del Operator,
It is the vector differential operator (gradient

operator).
The del operator in Cartesian coordinates is
defined by

a x ay az
x
y
z
It is not a vector in itself.
Operating it on a scalar function will result to

a vector.

Del Operator,
The del operator is useful in defining:
The gradient of a scalar V, V
The divergence of a vector A, A
The curl of a vector A, x A
The Laplacian of a scalar V, 2V

For del operator in circular cylindrical and

spherical coordinates, take note of the
conversions in the next slide.

Del Operator,
ax = cos a sin a
ay = sin a + cos a
a = cos ax + sin ay
a = sin ax + cos ay
az = az
ax = sin cos ar + cos cos a sin a
ay = sin sin ar + cos sin a + cos a

az = cos ar sin a

Del Operator,
ar = sin cos ax + sin sin ay + cos az
a = cos cos ax + cos sin ay sin az
a = sin ax + cos ay
Example: Derive the del operator expression

(as shown below) in terms of circular

cylindrical coordinates. (Hint: Use partial
differentiation property.)

a
a a z

Del Operator,
Example: Repeat the previous problem in

terms of spherical coordinates as shown

below.

1
1
ar
a
a
r
r
r sin

Gradient of a Scalar
Some of the vector fields in applications can

be obtained from scalar fields, which is a

considerable advantage since scalar fields can
be handled more easily.
The relation between those two kinds of
fields is obtained by the gradient.
The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that
represents both the magnitude and the
direction of the maximum space rate of
increase of V.

Gradient of a Scalar
It is denoted by grad V or V where V is a

scalar function of x, y, and z (in Cartesian).

Mathematically, the gradient can be obtained
by evaluating the difference in the field dV
between points P1 and P2 (as shown in the
next slide) where V1, V2, and V3 are contours
on which V is constant.

Gradient of a Scalar

Gradient of a Scalar
By partial differentiation,

V
V
V
dV
dx
dy
dz
x
y
z
V
V
V
ax
ay
a z dx a x dy a y dz a z
y
z
x
G dl
G cos dl
dV
Consequently,
G cos .
dl

Gradient of a Scalar
Note that from the previous slide, dl is the

differential displacement from P1 to P2 and

and is the angle between G and dl.
From the previous equation, dV/dl is a
maximum when = 0 (i.e. when dl is in the
direction of G.
dV
dl

max

dV

G
dn

Gradient of a Scalar
dV/dn is the normal derivative.
Conclusively, G has its magnitude and

direction as those of the maximum rate of

change of V, and G is the gradient of V as
defined.
V
V
V
grad V V
ax
ay
az
x
y
z
Applying the del operator, the gradient of V

can also be expressed in circular cylindrical

and spherical coordinates.

Gradient of a Scalar
Note the following derived formulas (easily

proved) on gradient:
(V + U) = V + U
(VU) = V U + U V
(V/U) = (U V V U) / U2

V n = nV n 1 V
U and V are scalars; n is an integer.

Gradient of a Scalar
Note also the following fundamental

properties of the gradient of a scalar field V:

The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of

change in V per unit distance.

V points in the direction of the maximum rate of
change in V.
V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V
surface that passes through that point.
The projection (or component) of V in the
direction of a unit vector a is V a and is called
the directional derivative of V along a.

Gradient of a Scalar
V a is the rate of change of V in the direction of
a. The gradient of a scalar function V provides
both the direction in which V changes most
rapidly and the magnitude of the maximum
directional derivative of V.
If A = V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A.

Example: Find the gradient of the following

scalar fields: (a) V = e z sin 2x cosh y; (b) U =

2z cos 2; and (c) W = 10r sin2 cos .

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector
Recall that the net outflow of the flux of a

vector field A from a closed surface S is

obtained from the integral

A dS
S

The divergence of A is the net outward flow

of flux per unit volume over a closed

incremental surface.

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector
More specifically:
The divergence of A at a given point P is the

outward flux per unit volume as the volume

shrinks about P.

div A A lim

v 0

A dS
S

where v is the volume enclosed by the

closed surface S (where P is located).

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector
The divergence of the vector field A at a given

point may be regarded physically as a

measure of how much the field diverges or
emanates from that point.
Note that a vector diverges at a point if it
spreads out from that point.
The next figure shows positive divergence
(a), convergence or negative divergence (b),
and zero divergence (c).

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector
The divergence of the vector field can also be

viewed as the limit of the fields source

strength per unit volume (or source density);
it is positive at a source point in the fields,
negative at a sink point, or zero where there is
neither sink nor source.

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector
Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem

Divergence Theorem;
Divergence of a Vector
Examples: