Module 1

Basic Electrical Theory

This module describes basic electrical concepts
and introduces electrical terminology.
PART - 1

2
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
The atom is the smallest particle to which
an element can be reduced while still
keeping the properties of that element.
3
ATOM
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
The Carbon Atom
Contains:
6 protons in its
nucleus; therefore,
the atomic number is
6,
6 neutrons
6 electrons outside
nucleus
4
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
The Electron and the Nucleus attract each other.
This attraction is called electrostatic force, the force
that holds the electron in orbit
5
Electrostatic Force
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
The First Law of Electrostatics

The charges on Electron (-) and Proton (+)
are referred to as electrostatic charges.

In nature, unlike charges attract each other,
and like charges repel each other.

These facts are known as the First Law of
Electrostatics and are sometimes referred
to as the law of electrical charges.
6
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Electrostatic field exists around each
charged particle or object. This
electrostatic field, and the force it creates,
can be illustrated with lines called "lines
of force.
7
Electrostatic Field
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
8
Electrostatic Field
Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Opposite
Polarity
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
9
Electrostatic Field
Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Like
Polarity
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Coulombs Law of electrostatic charges
The strength of the attraction or of the repulsion
force depends upon two factors:
(1) the amount of charge on each object
(2) the distance between the objects.
Statement
The force of electrostatic attraction, or
repulsion, is directly proportional to the
product of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
10
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Coulombs Law of electrostatic charges

The Force Of Electrostatic Attraction, Or Repulsion, Is Directly Proportional To The
Product Of The Two Charges And Inversely Proportional To The Square Of The Distance
Between Them.
Equation:


11
Where;
F = force of electrostatic attraction or repulsion (Newton)
K = constant of proportionality (N-m
2
/Coulomb
2
)
q
1
= charge of first particle (Coulombs)
q
2
= charge of second particle (Coulombs)
d = distance between two particles (Meters)
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Potential difference is the term used to describe
how large the electrostatic force is between two
charged objects.
12
Potential Difference (V)
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Due to the force of its electrostatic field, these
electrical charges have the ability to do work by
moving another charged particle by attraction
and/or repulsion. This ability to do work is called
"potential.
13
Potential Difference (V)
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Electromotive Force (EMF)
14
If one charge is different from another, there is
a potential difference between them.

The sum of the potential differences of all
charged particles in the electrostatic field is
referred to as electromotive force (EMF).
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Electrons Shells / Orbit
15
1. The maximum number of electrons that can fit
in the outermost shell of any atom is eight.
2. The maximum number of electrons that can fit
in the next-to-outermost shell of any atom is
18.
Two simple rules
concerning electron
shells:
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Free Electrons
16
If enough energy is applied to the atom, some
of the valence electrons will leave the atom.

These electrons are called free electrons.

An atom that has lost or gained one or more
electrons is said to be ionized

Two types of ion:
1. Positive 2. Negative
ATOM AND ITS FORCES
Electricity is defined as:
"the flow of electrons through simple
materials and devices"
or
"that force which moves electrons."
17
What is Electricity?
PART - 2

18
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Conductors
Conductors are materials with electrons that are
loosely bound to their atoms
Or materials that permit free motion of a large
number of electrons. Such as copper, silver, and
gold

Insulators
Insulators, or non-conductors, are materials with
electrons that are tightly bound to their atoms and
require large amounts of energy to free them from
the influence of the nucleus.
Examples are rubber, plastics, glass, and dry
wood.


19
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Resistors
Resistors are made of materials that conduct
electricity, but offer opposition to current flow.
they are neither good conductors nor good
insulators

Semiconductors

Semiconductors have more than one or two
electrons in their valence shells, but less than
seven or eight.
Examples of semiconductors are carbon, silicon,
germanium, tin, and lead. Each has four valence
electrons.


20
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Movement or flow of Electrons is called
electron current flow or just current.
To produce current, the electrons must be
moved by a potential difference
21
Current
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Ideal Source

An ideal source is a theoretical concept of an electric
current or voltage supply
that has no losses and is a perfect voltage or current
supply.
they cannot occur in nature.

Real Source

A real source is a real life current or voltage supply
that has some losses associated with it.
22
Ideal and Real Sources
PART - 3

23
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
System Internationale (SI) Metric System

Units of electrical measurement include the
following:
Ampere
Volt
Ohm
Siemens
Watt
Henry
Farad
24
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
System Internationale (SI) Metric
System

Voltage
In electrical formulas and equations, voltage
symbolized with a capital E

on laboratory equipment or schematic
diagrams, the voltage is often represented
with a capital V.
25
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
System Internationale (SI) Metric
System

Current
In electrical formulas and equations,
current is symbolized with a capital I

in the laboratory or on schematic
diagrams, it is common to use a capital A
26
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
System Internationale (SI) Metric
System

Resistance
Resistance is measured in ohms and is
represented by the symbol (R) in
equations

The shorthand notation for ohm is the
Greek letter capital omega ().
27
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
In 1827, George Simon Ohm discovered
that there was a definite relationship
between voltage, current and resistance in
an electrical circuit

1. Applied voltage equals circuit current
times the circuit resistance.
E = I x R or E = IR
28
Ohms Law
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
2. Current is equal to the applied voltage
divided by the circuit resistance.
I = E/R

3. Resistance of a circuit is equal to the
applied voltage divided by the circuit
current.
R = E/I
29
Ohms Law
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Conductance
The opposite, or reciprocal, of resistance
is called conductance
conductance can be defined as the ability
to conduct current

G = 1/R
30
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Power
Power is the rate at which work is done,
or the rate at which heat is generated.
Watt is the Unit Of Power.

P = I x E or P = IE
P = I
2
R
31
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Inductance
Inductance is defined as the ability of a coil to
store energy, induce a voltage in itself, and
oppose changes in current flowing through it.
inductance in electrical formulas and
equations is a capital L
The units of measurement are called henries
(H)
V
L
= -L(dI/dt)
32
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Capacitance
Capacitance is defined as the ability to store an
electric charge.

Capacitance (C), is equal to the amount of
charge (Q) that can be stored in a device or
capacitor divided by the voltage (E)

The units of measurement are called Farad (F)
C = Q/E
33
PART - 4

34
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE (ELECTRICITY)
Chemicals can be combined with certain metals to
cause a chemical reaction that will transfer
electrons to produce electrical energy. This
process works on the electrochemistry principle
35
Electrochemistry
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
If electrons are removed from the atoms in
zero Charge body of matter, as happens due
to friction when one rubs a glass rod with a silk
cloth, it will become electrically positive.
36
Static Electricity
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
Magnetic induction is used to produce a voltage by
rotating coils of wire through a stationary magnetic
field

or by rotating a magnetic field through stationary
coils of wire.
37
Magnetic Induction
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
Generation of voltage By applying pressure
to certain crystals (such as quartz or
Rochelle salts) or certain ceramics (like
barium titanate) is known as the
Piezoelectric effect.
38
Piezoelectric Effect
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
The thermoelectric voltage in a thermocouple is
dependent upon the heat energy applied to the junction
of the two dissimilar metals.

Thermocouples are widely used to measure
temperature and as heat-sensing devices in automatic
temperature controlled equipment.
39
Thermoelectricity
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
The emission of electrons from the metal surface
after absorption of light photons known as the
photoelectric effect.

Three Uses of Photoelectric effect
1. Photovoltaic 2. Photoemission 3.
Photoconduction
40
Photoelectric Effect
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
A thermionic energy converter is a device
consisting of two electrodes placed near one
another in a vacuum.

The liberation of electrons from a hot surface is
called thermionic emission.
41
Thermionic Emission
METHODS OF PRODUCING VOLTAGE
(ELECTRICITY)
The simplest example
of a thermionic device
is a vacuum tube
diode in which the only
electrodes are the
cathode and plate, or
anode.

The diode can be used
to convert alternating
current (AC) flow to a
pulsating direct current
(DC) flow.
42
Thermionic Emission
PART - 5
43
MAGNETISM
Magnetism is a result of electrons
spinning on their own axis around the
nucleus.

In magnetic materials, the atoms have
certain areas called domains.
44
Magnetism
MAGNETISM
The alignment of these domains results in
the formation of magnetic poles

The law of magnetism states that like
magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic
poles attract one another.
45
Magnetism
MAGNETISM
The group of magnetic field lines emitted
outward from the north pole of a magnet is called
magnetic flux. The symbol for magnetic flux is
(phi).
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).
46
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Flux Density
Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic
flux per unit area of a section, perpendicular to
the direction of flux.
B= /A
Where:
B = magnetic flux density in teslas (T), = magnetic flux
in webers (Wb),A = area in square meters (m
2
)
MAGNETISM
Magnetic materials are those materials that
can be either attracted or repelled by a magnet
and can be magnetized themselves
47
Magnetic Materials
Permeability ()
ability of a material to concentrate magnetic lines of
flux.

Relative permeability(
R
)
is the ratio of the permeability of a material() to the
permeability of a vacuum (
O
).

MAGNETISM
48
Magnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic Materials:
Ferrites are nonmagnetic, but have the
ferromagnetic properties of iron.
Ferrites are made of ceramic material and have
relative permeabilities that range from 50 to 200

Paramagnetic Materials:
Such as aluminum, platinum, manganese, and
chromium. They have a relative permeability of
slightly more than one.

Diamagnetic Materials:
Such as bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury,
gold, and silver. They have a relative permeability of
less than one.
MAGNETISM
49
Electromagnetism
The relationship between magnetism and electrical current
was discovered by a Danish scientist named Oersted in
1819.

If an electric current was caused to flow through a
conductor, the conductor produced a magnetic field
around that conductor
MAGNETISM
50
Polarity of a Single Conductor
A convenient way to determine the relationship between the
current flow through a conductor and the direction of the
magnetic lines of force around the conductor is the left-hand
rule for current carrying conductors.
MAGNETISM
51
Magnetic Field and Polarity of a Coil
Adding an iron core inside of a coil will increase the flux
density.
The polarity of the iron core will be the same as that of the
coil.
Current flow is from the negative side of the voltage source,
through the coil, and back to the positive side of the source
MAGNETISM
52
Magnetic Field and Polarity of a Coil
Left-hand Rule to Find North Pole of an Electromagnet
MAGNETISM
53
Magnetomotive Force
Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the strength of a
magnetic field in a coil of wire

The more current, the stronger the magnetic field.
The more turns of wire, the more concentrated
the lines of force.
F
m
= ampere-turns = NI
Where;
F
m
= Magnetomotive force (mmf)
N = Number of turns
I = Current
MAGNETISM
54
Field Intensity
When a coil with a certain number of ampere-
turns is stretched to twice its length, the magnetic
field intensity, or the concentration of its magnetic
lines of force, will be half as great.
Therefore, field intensity depends on the length of
the coil.
H= F
m
/ L= NI / L
Where;
H = field intensity, A
t
/ m
NI = ampere-turns (A
t
)
L = length between poles of coil (m)
F
m
= Magnetomotive force (mmf)
MAGNETISM
55
Reluctance
Opposition to the production of flux in a material is
called reluctance,

R = mmf /

Reluctance is inversely proportional to permeability
()
PART - 6
56
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
57
Magnetic Circuits
A magnetic circuit can be compared with an
electric current in which EMF, or voltage,
produces a current flow.

= F
m
/R = mmf /R
where
= magnetic flux, W
b
F
m
= magnetomotive force (mmf), A
t
R = Reluctance, At / W
b
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
58
Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic Current with Closed Iron Path
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
59
BH Magnetization Curve
The BH Magnetization Curve shows how much flux
density (B) results from increasing the flux intensity (H).
The permeability () of a magnetic material is the ratio of
B to H.
= B / H
MAGNETISM
60
Hysteresis
When current in a coil
reverses direction
thousands of times per
second.
Hysteresis can cause
considerable loss of
energy.
Hysteresis is defined as
"a lagging behind.
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
61
Electromagnetic induction was discovered by
Michael Faraday in 1831.
If a conductor "cuts across" lines of magnetic force,
or if magnetic lines of force cut across a conductor,
a voltage, or EMF, is induced into the conductor.
Magnetic Induction
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
62
The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on
two factors:
(1) the number of turns of a coil, and
(2) How fast the conductor cuts across the magnetic
lines of force, or flux.

Faradays Law of Induced Voltage
Where;
Vind = induced voltage, V
N = number of turns in a coil

= rate at which the flux cuts across the conductor,
W
b
/s


MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
63
Lenzs Law determines the polarity of the induced
voltage.
Induced voltage has a polarity that will oppose the
change causing the induction.
Lenzs Law
PART - 7
64
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
65
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
66

67