Radiography Interpretation

Part 1

Fluoroscopy
X-ray unit

Fluorescent
screen

Thick,dark

Thin, light

Lead glass Fluorescent light

mirror

Fluoroscopy
Advantages
Fast inspection technique No film processing required Can permit viewing in all direction

Disadvantages
No permanent record Hazardous to operator Limited to thickness (Good for thin material)

Duties of a radiographic interpreter

Mask of any unwanted light from viewer Ensure the background light is subdued Check the radiograph for correct identification Assess the radiographs density Calculate the radiographs sensitivity Check the radiograph for any artifacts Assess the radiograph for any defects present State the action to be taken, acceptable, rejectable or repair

Principles of Radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density of the material through which it is travelling Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as darker areas on the radiograph

Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites

Industrial Radiography

X - Rays Electrically generated

Gamma Rays Generated by the decay of unstable atoms

X-Ray Radiography
X-Rays are produced form electrical equipment referred to as x-ray tubes or x-ray tube heads

Gamma Ray Radiography

Gamma rays are produced from artificial isotopes, example Cobalt 60, Iridium 192.

Radiographic Inspection
Source Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Radiographic film

Test specimen

The basis of radiography

Source
High dense discontinuity Low dense discontinuity

Lighter region on radiograph

Film

Darker region on radiograph

The basis of radiography Source

Thin part
Thick part Film

Lighter Region on radiograph

Darker region on radiograph

Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9 Old: Angstroms () 1 = 10-10 m

RADIATION EXPOSURE: New: Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg) Old: Roentgen

ABSORBED DOSE: New: Gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram Old: Rad 100 rads = 1 Gy

BIOLOGICAL EFFECT:

New: Sievert (Sv) 1 Sv = 1 joule/kilogram Old: Rem 100 rems = 1 Sv

Prefixes
1012 109 106 103 102 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

Definition
Tera Giga Mega Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Micro Nano pico

Symbol
T G M K h da d c m n p

Inverse Square Law

D1 I1 D2

I 1 D2 2 = I 2 D1 2

I2

Example: 1

An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of radiation at an auto-monitored distance of 1m. What is the distance where safety barriers are to be erected at 7.5 msv/h? An emergency is when an unshielded isotope emits 6.4 sv/h at the barriers at 45m distance. What will be the exposure at 1m? Determine the intensity of radiation at a distance of 1m if a survey meter reveals 0.02 mr/h at 35m. The intensity of radiation on a survey meter is 333msv/h at 15m. What distance is between the meter and radiation source if the meter shows 75 msv/h?

Example: 2

Example: 3

Example: 4

Inverse Square Law Answers

Question 1

I1 = 40 msv/h I2 = 7.5msv/h D2 =

D1 = 1m D2 = ? D2 = 40 7 .5 X 12

I 1 X D12 I2 Answer D2 = 2.31m

Question 2

I1 = 6.4 sv/h I2 = ? I2 = D12 X I1 2 D2 Answer I2 = 12960sv/h

D1 = 45m D2 = 1m 2 I2 = 45 X 6.4 12

Question 3

I1 = ? I2 = 0.02 mr/h 2 I 1 = D2 2 X I2 D1 Answer I1 = 24.5 mr/h I1 = 333 msv/h I2 = 75 msv/h

D2 = I1 X D12 I2 Answer D2 = 31.6 m

D1 = 1m D2 = 35m 2 I1 = 35 X 0.02 12 D1 = 15m D2 = ?

D2 = 333 75 X 152

Question 4

Advantages of Radiography
Permanent record

Internal flaws
Can be used on most materials Direct image of flaws Real - time imaging

Disadvantages of Radiography
Health hazard Sensitive to defect orientation Access to both sides required Limited by material thickness Skilled interpretation required

Relatively slow
High capital outlay and running costs

What is radiation?
Waves of energy associated with electrical and magnetic fields Electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation

Electromagnetic Radiation

Properties of x-ray and gamma rays

They

have no effect on the human sense They have adverse effects on the body They penetrate matter They travel at the speed of light They obey the inverse square law They may be scattered They affect photographic emulsion They may be refracted and diffracted

Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy

(Quantum theory)

Shortening Wavelength

Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy

V f V 2.997 x10 m / sec

8

E = hf
Planks constant = 6.626196 x 10-34J.s.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Industrial radiography Microwaves Ultra Infra red violet TV Electric Waves

10-10 10-8

10-6

10-4

10-2

1cm

102

104

106

108

Wavelength

Ionization
Electrons Protons & Neutrons
8+

Oxygen atom 8 +ve protons 8 -ve electrons no overall charge

Ionization
Electrons Protons & Neutrons
Ionising Radiation
8+

Oxygen atom 8 +ve protons 8 -ve electrons no overall charge

8 +ve protons 7 -ve electrons 1 +ve charge

8+

Negative oxygen ion

Ionization
Electrons Protons & Neutrons
Ionising Radiation
Displaced electron 8+

Oxygen atom 8 +ve protons 8 -ve electrons no overall charge

8 +ve protons 7 -ve electrons 1 +ve charge

8+

8+

Negative oxygen ion Positive oxygen ion

8 +ve protons 9 -ve electrons 1 -ve charge

Atomic structure
N SHELL
M SHELL L SHELL K SHELL

Proton + ve charge
Neutron no charge Electron ve charge

Atomic structure
ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge

NEUTRONS: No Charge

PROTONS: +Ve Charge

Example of a Helium Atom Atomic number: 2 Atomic mass number: 4 The atom carries no overall charge.

Atomic Structure
Protons : +ve charge Neutrons : No electrical charge Electrons : -ve charge , mass 1/1836 of a proton Number protons = Number electrons

Atomic Structure
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
The number of protons this dictates the element type.

ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A)

The number of protons + neutrons, this can be altered in order to make artificial isotopes.

Radiography
X-ray production

X-Ray Production
X-rays are produced when electrons strike a positively charged nucleus
The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into electromagnetic radiation (X-rays)

X ray tube

X-Ray Tube (Evacuated Glass Bulb)

Focussing cup Filament (97-99% heat) (1-3% X-ray) Tungsten Target (70o)

Cathode - ve

Anode + ve

Milliamps Intensity (Quantity)

Electron Stream X-ray beam Homogeneous wavelength Kilovolts wavelength (Quality)

Atomic structure of Tungsten ( Anode)

99 % will changed into heat and light (Bremsstrahlung) Higher velocity

Lower velocity

Higher velocity Polychromatic ray

Characteristic X-ray

(Monochromatic ray)

Continuous X-ray (Industrial radiography)

X-RAY PRODUCTION
CATHODE
1. PROCESS THAT MAKE THE ELECTRON BOILS OUT FROM THE HOT WIRE IS CALLED THERMIONIC EMISSION 2. IT IS CONTROLLED BY THE MILIAMP CONTROL WHICH SUPPLY CURRENT TO THE CATHODE

ANODE
1. INCLINED TUNGSTEN TARGET EMBEDDED IN A LARGE LUMP OF COPPER 2. USED AS A TARGET FOR THE ELECTRON TO HIT,AND THE IMPACT WILL PRODUCE X-RAYS AND HEAT. 3. VOLTAGE THAT SUPPLY TO THE ANODE IS CONTROLED BY THE kV CONTROL. 4. THE HIGHER THE VOLTAGE ACROSS THE TUBE,THE HIGHER THE VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRONS AND THE GREATER THE PENETRATING POWER

3. INCREASE THE CURRENT, WILL INCREASE THE INTENSITY OF THE ELECTRON STREAM AND HENCE THE RADIATION

X-Ray Production
Kilovoltage
Increase

Decrease
Decrease electron speed

Increase electron speed

Radiation wavelength shortens Increase penetration

Radiation wavelength increases

Decrease penetration

X-Ray Production
Amperage
Increase
Increase filament temperature Increase number of electrons Increase amount of radiation Reduce the exposure time

Decrease
Decrease filament temperature Decrease number of electrons

Decrease amount of radiation Increases the exposure time

The Conservation of Energy

The law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed although it is possible to change it to one form to another. In the case of x-rays a stream of quickly moving particles (usually electrons) strike a target material (usually tungsten) and are brought to a rapid halt. A portion of this energy is give off as packets of electromagnetic radiation called photons. The photons can vary in energy which is determined by 1. 2. 3.

The original energy of the electrons. How rapid the electrons are decelerated. The atomic number of the target material.

This process is known as bremsstrahlung

A.C. Circuit
+

The effect of a.c. on the direction of current flow. In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be produced when the current is travelling from the cathode (-ve) to the anode (+ve).

Half Wave rectified Circuit

+

In the half wave rectified circuit the anode is only positive every half cycle, therefore the electrons will only flow from the filament during that time. The x-rays are only produced during the positive half cycle.

Constant Potential Circuit

+

The introduction of separate rectifiers into the circuit, produces a constant electron flow from the cathode to anode and therefore a relatively constant output of xrays. This circuit is know as a Greinacher circuit.

X-Ray Set Circuits

Constant Potential
Advantages High output/unit time 100% duty cycle

Half Wave Rectified

Advantages More commonly used on site More robust

Shorter exposure times

Disadvantages Bulky equipment Expensive

Portable/lighter
Disadvantages Low output/unit time Longer exposure times Low duty cycle 50%

Determination of focal spot size

X- RAY TUBE

FOCAL SPOT

250 mm LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T. 0.25 mm Dia HOLE

FOCAL SPOT SIZE DETERMINED BY Image Dimension - (2 X Hole Size) 4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm

250 mm FILM AND CASSETTE

LARGEST IMAGE DIMENSION e.g. 4mm

DEVELOPED FILM

Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image

Radiography
Gamma ray production

Production Of Artificial Isotopes

Inserted Stable cobalt - 59 Each Co 59 Nucleus contains :27 protons 32 neutrons Neutron Flux

Removed

Unstable cobalt - 60
Each Co 60 Nucleus contains :27 protons 33 neutrons

Nuclear Reactor
Only a relatively few Co 59 atoms become Co 60 depending on the time in the reactor and the magnitude of the neutron flux

Radioactive Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable others are not Unstable isotopes transform into another element and in so doing emit radiation in 3 forms Alpha (particles) Beta (particles) Gamma (rays)

Isotopes Specific Activity

ALPHA PARTICLES
2 NEUTRONS AND 2 PROTONS VERY LOW PENETRATING

ISOTOPE
RADIOACTIVE AREAS THE GREATER THE AMOUNT THE GREATER THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY

NEUTRONS BETA PARTICLES

EJECTED AS ELECTRONS -Ve CHARGE THERMAL & FAST

GAMMA RAYS
EMMITTED AFTER BETA OR ALPHA PARTICLES. Photons of energy they are not particles.

Rate of Decay
Curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegration / second Becquerel 1 disintegration / second 1 Curie = 37 Gbq Half Life Time taken for the activity of an isotope to reduce by a half Cobalt 60 Iridium 192 Ytterbium 169 Selenium 75 5.3 years 74 days 32 days 120 days

Wavelengths

Relative Intensity Mev.

Co 60 1.17 to1.3 Mev Ir 192 0.3 to 0.47 Mev

Yb 169 0.06 to 0.2 Mev

Long

Wavelength

Short

Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave length is not of a fixed nature. A number of frequencies will be emitted for most sources. Descrite wavelengths gives Gamma an advantage to give a better latitude.

Scattering process
1. Rayleigh Scattering

Soft radiation

The primary photon is scattered by the orbital electrons without removing any electrons . The photon is deflected but does not change the energy

Absorption process
1. Photoelectric Process
Low energy level - Below 0.3 Mev

Ejected electron
Low Energy X-ray (total energy beam absorbed by this electron)

Absorption process
1. Compton Effect Energy level-(0.3 - 3.0 Mev) photon X-ray Ejected electron

Scattered radiation

Moderate Energy ( 0.3 - 3.0 Mev) Most commonly happen in radiography industry using Ir 192

Absorption process
3. Pair Production
Energy level (Above 3.0 Mev) Thick material using Co 60 High Energy X-ray Ejected electron

Scattered radiation

Ejected positron

ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

Rayleigh scattering
Occurs at very low energies In this process, photons are deflected by outer electrons with no change in energy

Photoelectric effect
Occurs at low energies The complete absorption of a photon of energy by an atom with the emission of an electron

Compton effect
Occurs at higher energies
The interaction of a photon of energy by an electron resulting in the ejection of an electron from its atom with a certain amount of energy. The remaining energy is scattered this is known as COMPTON SCATTER

Pair production
Occurs at very high energies The simultaneous formation of an positron (+ve electron) and a electron as a result of the interaction of a photon with the nucleus of the atom. The particles are soon afterwards destroyed thus creating photons this is known as Annihilation

Gamma ray VS X-ray

Advantages No electrical or water supplies needed Equipment smaller and lighter (More portable) Disadvantages Poorer quality radiographs

Exposure times can be longer

Sources need replacing

Equipment simpler and more robust

More easily accessed

Radiation cannot be switched off

Poorer geometric unsharpness Remote handling necessary

Less scatter
Equipment initially less costly

Greater penetrating power