R.
A ISHVARYA
Higher intellectual functions are very essential to make up human mind. These functions are also called as higher brain functions or higher cortical functions. Cerebral cortex is responsible for these functions.
Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It has 2 hemispheres- right & left. The superficial part of the cerebrum is composed of nerve cell bodies or gray matter forming cerebral cortex. The deeper layers consists of nerve fibers or white matter.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER
1 2 3 4 5 6
- stellate cells( star shaped cells) -small pyramidal & stellate cells. -typical pyramidal cells. -densely packed stellate cells. -giant pyramidal & betz cells. -different types of cells.
Each cerebral hemisphere consists of 4 lobes; 1. Frontal lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Occipital lobe 4. Temporal lobe.
A revolution in our understanding of brain function in humans has been brought about by the development of positron emission tomographic (PET) scanning, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). PET scans are used to identify particular areas for speech, hearing etc.
It is defined as the process by which new information is acquired.
It alters the behaviour of a person on the basis of past experience.
It is classified into 2 types: Non-associative learning-habituation, sensitization. Associative learning
1. 2.
It involves response of a person to only one type of stimulus. 1) Habituation: it means getting used to something by constant exposure. When a person is exposed to a stimulus repeatedly, he starts ignoring it slowly. During 1st experience the stimulus is novel and evokes a response. However it evokes less response on repetition.
During habituation there is a decrease in the Ca2+ level in the presynaptic terminal when repeated stimulus is given. Low Ca2+ concentration is responsible for the less amount of stimulating neuro transmitter.
Finally the person is habituated to the stimulus and ignores it. For example, a political slogan, cinema song etc 2) Sensitization: It is a process by which the body is made to become more sensitive to a stimulus. It is called amplification of response.
For example, a woman is sensitized to crying sound of her baby. While sleeping, she suddenly wakes up when her baby cries because of sensitization to crying sound of the baby.
When a stimulus is given repeatedly serotonin released by nociceotive (causing pain) neurons prolongs the Ca2+ influx in to the presynaptic neurons. This in turn leads to increased release of neuro transmitters that stimulate the post synaptic neuron frequently.
It is a complex process. It involves learning about relations between 2 or more stimulus. Classic example is conditioned reflex. Conditioned reflex is important in all forms of learning. For example, sugar put into mouth always causes salivation. Sugar- unconditioned stimulus.
But if a sound is given before putting sugar and made as a practice, it is seen that the sound in absence of sugar can stimulate salivation. Normally sound causes no salivation but on association with unconditioned stimulus gives a response. This is called associative learning.
It is defined as the ability to recall past experience or information. Some memories remain only for few seconds, while others lasts for hours, days, months or even years together.
The structure for memory is synapse in the brain. Synapse for memory coding is different from other synapse. 2 separate presynaptic terminals are present here. one post synaptic neuron is present here.
One of the terminals is primary pre synaptic terminal, which ends on post synaptic neuron. This terminal is called sensory terminal, as sensations are transmitted to the post synaptic neuron by this terminal. Another presynaptic terminal ends on sensory terminal itself. This is called facilitator terminal.
Memory is stored in brain by the alteration of synaptic transmission between the neurons involved in memory. Storage of memory may be habituated or facilitated. When sensory terminal is stimulated alone without facilitator terminal, it leads to habituation firing decreases slowly. If both terminals are stimulated, facilitation occurs-signal remain for few months to years.
Hippocampus Thalamus Hypothalamus Corpus striatum are the main sites of encoding. Frontal & parietal lobes are also involved,
Previously mentioned mechanisms on habituation and sensitization are proved experiments done on sea snail (Aplysia). Nobel laureate, Eric kandel worked on this. This animal is useful in brain research because of its simple nervous system & the individual nerve cells are large.
A) SHORT TERM MEMORY: It is the recalling of events that happened very recently i.e within hours or days. Basic mechanism of short term memory is the formation of new neuronal circuits thru new synapses and facilitated neuronal transmission. Confined to single storage area. Interrupted by drug, stress & trauma.
B) LONG TERM MEMORY: it is the recalling of events of weeks, months, years or lifetime. For example- poem memorized in school days. The neuronal circuits are activated constantly memory is consolidated & encoded into different areas in brain. This makes them permanent memory.
C)EXPLICIT MEMORY: It is the memory involving conscious recollection of past experience Also called as declarative memory. It involves hippocampus and medial part of temporal lobe. Example- recollection of birthday party celebrated 3 days ago.
D) IMPLICIT MEMORY: It is defined as the memory in which past experience is utilized without conscious awareness. Also called skilled memory. Example- cycling, driving etc It involves the sensory and motor pathways.
It is a process in which short term memory is crystallized to long term memory. It causes permanent facilitation of synapses. It is done by rehearsal mechanism by which information is transferred to long term memory.
Stimulation of facilitator neuron & sensory neuron. Release of serotonin from facilitator terminal on sensory terminal. Formation of serotonin- receptor complex. Activation of adenyl cyclase. Formation of cAMP in sensory terminal. Activation of protein kinase.
Phosphorylation of K+ in the terminal membrane. Blockage of K+ exit. Continues action potential for long period. Continues influx of Ca+ in sensory terminal. Release of large amount of neurotransmitter. Facilitation of synaptic transmission and memory.
Common stimulants; Caffeine Physostigmine. Amphetamine. Nicotine. Strychnine. Metrazol.
1)
AMNESIA: Loss of memory. 2 types; Anterograde- failure to establish new long term memories due to lesion in hippocampus. Retrograde- failure to recall past long term memory due to temporal lobe syndrome.
2) DEMENTIA: A progressive deterioration of intellect, emotional control, social behaviour, and motivation associated with loss of memory. It is an age related disorder. Usually occurs above age 65. If it occurs under age of 65 pre senile dementia.
CAUSES: Common cause- Alzheimers disease. Hydrocephalus, huntington chorea, parkinsons disease, viral encephalitis, HIV infection, hypothyroidism, hypo para thyroidism, cushing syndrome, alcoholic intoxication, barbiturate poisoning, CO, heavy metals etc.
CLINICAL FEATURES: loss of recent memory, lack of thinking. Judgement & personality changes. As disease progress-psychiatric & motor changes. Physostigmine drug- moderate improvement.
3) ALZHEIMERS DISEASE: Progressive neurodegenerative disease. Loss of neurons by death in cerebral hemispheres, pons, hippocampus. Reduction in synthesis of acetycholine due to lack of enzyme choline acetyl transferase. Dementia is the common feature.