CHAPTER 4 : MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
TOPIC
1) TYPES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 2) MECHANICAL TESTS OF METALS 3) HARDNESS TESTS 4) IMPACT TEST
TYPES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Defined as those properties which completely define its behavior under action of external load or forces. Those properties which associated with :
Its ability to resist failure Its behavior under action of external forces
Knowledge of mechanical properties :
Essential for engineers in selecting suitable materials for various applications.
Mechanical properties
Strength Hardness Ductility Brittleness Toughness
Ability to withstand or support external forces or load without rupture Ability to resist deformation by abrasion, indentation or penetration and scratching by harder bodies. Ability to undergo appreciable plastic deformation before rupture. Ability to fracture when deformed . Opposite to ductility Ability to absorb maximum energy up to fracture. Must be strong & ductile to be tough. Shows ability to withstand impact. Value increase when temperature increases. Ability to retain its original shape & size after removal of load Ability to experience permanent deformation without fracture when subjected to external forces
Elasticity Plasticity
Resilience
Malleability
Ability to absorb energy when it is elastically deformed
Ability to be deformed into thin sheets by rolling or hammering without fracture
Machinability Ability to be cut or removed by cutting tools in various ,machining operations.
Weldability
Castability
Ability of 2 similar or dissimilar metals to be joined by fusion& with or without filler
Ability to be formed into different shapes & sizes from its liquid state
MECHANICAL TESTS OF METALS
All mechanical properties of metal- established by conducting tests on various testing machines. Types of mechanical test :
Tensile
test Hardness test Impact test Compressive test Fatigue test Creep test
Tensile test
understand mechanical behavior by stress-strain test. 3 ways of load application tension, shear, compression Most common mechanical stress-strain performed in tension Performed to determined ;
Elastic limit Yield point Ultimate tensile strength % of elongation & reduction of area
Standard tensile specimen
Circular cross section Reduced section diameter = 12.8 mm Reduce section length = 60mm Gauge length = 50mm
Specimen held in holding grips of apparatus Load applied gradually at a constant rate Specimen will be elongated until fracture Elongation measured by extensometer
Procedure :
Data recorded load vs. elongation
o
Normalized to engineering stress & engineering strain
where : A0 = original cross sectional area before any load applied (m2) F = instantaneous load (N)
Engineering stress :
Engineering strain :
where : li = original length l0 = instantaneous length
Plot a graph stress vs. strain
OA
is a straight line Stress & strain proportional (Hookes Law) where E = modulus of elasticity Slope corresponds to E Called elastic deformation When applied load is released, specimen returns to its original shape.
AB is a small curve
A
is a point where elastic deformation end and plastic deformation begin
Phenomenon
of yielding occurs Called proportional limit Initial departure from linearity
To
determine yielding point precisely
Construct
straight line parallel to elastic portion of curve at a specified strain offset (0.002) B is the intersection of parallel line with curve The stress defined as a yield strength,
behavior for some steels
Elastic-plastic
Well
transition
defined Occurs abruptly
Yield
point phenomenon
yield point plastic deformation initiated. decrease Lower yield point deformation fluctuated at constant Yield strength , average of lower yield point
Upper
BC is an upward curve
Stress
increase to maximum limit (point C) Called tensile strength , TS Corresponds to maximum that can be sustained by a structure in tension . Necking begin to form- decrease of crosssectional area
CD is a downward curve
Specimen
continues to elongate Requires lesser load to continue deformation. decrease. D is a point of fracture or rupture
True stress
where : Ai = instantaneous cross sectional area
True Strain
where : li = instantaneous length
Ductility
Measure
degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture Can be expressed as :
%
elongation % area reduction
% elongation (% E)
where : lf = length after fracture lo = original length
% area reduction (%AR)
where : Af = cross sectional area at fracture
Brittle material
Has
little or no plastic deformation upon fracture Has less than 5% elongation
Hardness test Measure hardness by forcing an indenter into materials surface. Indenter made of harder material - usually in form of ball. pyramid or cone Early hardness test
1)
Done by comparing with 10 standard mineral Increasing hardness on Mohs scale
2)
3) 4) 5)
talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite
6) orthoclase
7) quartz
8) topaz 9) corundum 10) diamond
Important test
Brinell
Hardness Test Rockwell Hardness Test Viekers Hardness Test Knoop Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test
By Dr Johan August Brinell in 1900 Performed by pressing steel ball into surface of test pieces using appropriate force. Formula : Brinell Hardness Number , HB (or BHN)
Where
D = diameter of steel ball (mm) P = applied load (kg)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Rockwell Hardness Test
Devised in the USA The most common method:
Simple to perform Require no special skills Quick & direct reading Performed when hardness is beyond range of Brinells load is smaller than Brinells
Viekers Hardness Test
The most accurate test
Has
continuous scale of hardness (10 to 1000)
Indenter
Diamond
square based pyramid with 136 angle between opposite faces.
Load
Smaller
than Rockwell & Brinell Between 1 and 1000 g
Suitable for:
Small,
thin selected specimen region
Where P = applied load (kg) d = length of diagonal (mm)
Knoop Hardness Test
Very much similar to Vickers Indenter :
Diamond
pyramid with short depth and diagonal in ratio in ratio of 7:1
Measure diagonal length under microscope. Knoop hardness number designated by HK
Where l = longest diagonal length
Hardness scale for Knoop & Vickers
Approximately
equivalent
Both are referred as micro hardness testing
Basis
of reload & indenter size
Suitable for testing
Brittle
materials (ceramics) Extremely thin metal Exceptionally hard, very shallow carburized or nitride surface
IMPACT TEST
Many machine parts are subjected to sudden applied loads impact loads Important engineering wise to have :
Material
that can withstand impact load without fracturing
A hard, strong may not be suitable when subjected to sharp sudden load. Capacity of metals to withstands impact without fracture
Impact
resistance or impact strength Indication of toughness
Method of measuring toughness
Impact-
testing apparatus
Types of impact-testing apparatus
Charpy Izod
Question
A cylindrical specimen of metal having a diameter of 12.88 mm and a gauge length
of 63.50 mm is tested using a tensile testing machine. The elongation measurement
are recorded in Table 3.
i)
Plot the stress-strain curve on the graph paper provided based on data in Table 3
ii)
Based on the stress-strain curved plotted in (i) :
(1) (2) (3)
Compute the modulus of elasticity Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.
Determine the tensile strength
Determine the ductility in percent elongation and percent area reduction