DIRECTING
DR. ROSEMARIE I. SO
DIRECTING
refers
motivation, leadership.
to
the
process
of
and
communication,
MOTIVATION The word motivation comes from
the latin word movere which means to
move. Numerous definitions are given for
the term. Usually include or such words
as aim, desire, end, impulse, intention,
objective and purpose.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Traditional Theory
The traditional theory of motivation evolved from the work of Frederick W. Taylor.
The Hierarchy of Needs
5th Level - Self Actualization
4th Level - Self Esteem
3rd Level - Love and Belongingness
2nd Level - Security
1st Level - Physiological
Achievement - Power Affiliation Theory
Closely related to the need hierarchy theory is the achievement power affiliation theory, primarily developed by David McClelland. This theory holds that all people have three needs:
1. a need to achieve, 2. a need for power, and 3. a need for affiliation.
The need for achievement is a desire to do something better more efficiently than it has been done before.
The need for power is basically a concern
of influencing people to be strong and
influential.
The need for affiliation is a need to be
liked to establish or maintain friendly
relations with others.
Motivation Maintenance Theory
Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, and Barbara Syndeman developed a theory of work motivation which has wide acceptance in management circles. The
theory is referred to by several names:
motivation maintenance theory
dual factor theory
motivation hygiene theory
McGregors Theory X & Y
Theory X views human beings as inherently lazy and hence must be motivated by force. Theory Y contends that external force or punishment is not the best way of motivating individuals
because they are capable of exercising
self direction and self control.
Achievement Theory
This need is not something inborn but it can be acquired through training and teaching the teaching the trainees to think and behave in terms of achievement.
Barnard Simons Theory of Equilibrium
Equal wages must be paid for
equal work.
Vrooms Preference Expectancy Theory
This theory is based on the premise that an individual assigns values to the outcome of each alternative course of action.
Reinforcement Theory
According to Skinner, the following are the components of motivated behaviour: 1. Stimulus: The environmental setting in which behaviour occurs (performance). 2. Response: The behaviour level itself. 3. Reinforcement: The reward given for good performance only.
Maturity Theory
Chris Argyrie proposed a theory of motivation on maturity immaturity. He contends that as people grow (psychologically) and mature they strive toward the highest level of need in Maslows need hierarchy: selfactualization.
Job Enlargement This involves redesigning of jobs so that related activities are added to those currently being performed. Job Enrichment
This involves putting meaning into
jobs.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is defined as the
transfer of information that is meaningful
to those involved in general, the
transmittal of understanding.
Types of Communication
In organizational situations, there
are
formal
communications,
informal
communications, communication between
groups,
upward,
interpersonal
communications,
lateral
downward,
communications and so on.
Grapevines
Many
communication
informal
also
paths
exist
of
in
organizations.
These informal channels
are generally referred to as grapevines.
Ways to Communicate
1. Informal talk or grapevine
communication.
2. Memoranda
3. Telephone calls
4. Interoffice News
5. Letters
6. Reports
7. Conferences / Conventions 8. Meetings
9. Bulletin Board Notices
10. Exhibits and Displays
11. Visual Aids
Communication Networks
Communication networks refer to
the
pictorial
depictions
of
informal
channels.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
1. Distance 2. Distortion
3. Semantics
4. Lack of Levelling
5. Lack of Trust
6. Inaccessibility
7. Lack of Clear Responsibilities 8. Personal Incompatibility
9. Refusal to Listen
10. Failure to Use Proper Media
11. Communication Gap
12. Lack of Direction
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
1. Dictatorial leader
accomplishes
tasks through fear of penalties, and maintains a highly critical and negative attitude in relations with subordinates.
2. Autocratic
paternalistic
leader
role
assumes
which
forces
subordinates to rely on the leader for their satisfaction.
3. Democratic leader
depends not
only on their capabilities but encourage consultation of subordinates.
4. Laissez-faire
leader
depends
completely on subordinates to establish
their own goals and to make their own
decision.
Power, Authority, and Leadership
Power is the ability to command
or apply force.
Authority which exists in the
formal organization is the right to issue
directives and expend resources.
Leaders Attitudes Generally, it has been found that if the managers expectations are high,
productivity is likely to be high. On the
other hand; if the managers
expectations are low, productivity is
likely to be poor. McGregor called this
phenomenon the self-fulfilling prophecy.
It has been also Pygmalion in management.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Three basic types of skills which
are needed by all managers:
Technical skills is the ability to
perform a managers job.
Human skill is the ability to work with
others by getting along with them,
motivating them, and communicating
effectively with others.
Conceptual skill is the ability to
coordinate and integrate the entire
organizations interests and activities.
MANAGEMENT ROLES
Role is defined as an organized
set of behaviours belonging to an
identifiable job.
Interpersonal
Figurehead:
Manger represents the organizational unit in all matters of formality.
Liaison: Manager interacts with peers
and other people outside the organizational unit to gain information and favors.
Leader:
Manager provides guidance and motivation to the work group and also defines the atmosphere in which the work group will work.
Informational
Monitor: Manager serves as a receiver
and collector of information.
Disseminator:
special organizational unit.
Manager
transmits the
information
within
Spokesperson: Manager disseminates
the organizations information into its environment.
Decisional
Entrepreneur:
initiate change.
Mangers role is to
Disturbance handler:
the manager
must assume when the organization is threatened, such as conflicts between subordinates, the sudden departure of a subordinate, or the loss of an important customer.
Resource allocator: Manager decides
where the organization will expand its resources.
Negotiator:
Role
the
manager
assumes when the organization finds
itself in major non-routine negotiations
with other organizations or individuals.
MANAGERIAL GRID
In line with the Ohio State studies, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1964, 1969) developed a distinctive approach to the study of leadership: the managerial grid. They began their analysis by focusing on the two basic aspects of leader behavior concern for production (task orientation) and concern for people (consideration). Each of these dimensions was measured on a scale that ranges from one (low) to nine (high).