Chapter 35
The Nature of Light and the
Laws of Geometric Optics
The Nature of Light
Before the beginning of the nineteenth
century, light was considered to be a stream
of particles
The particles were either emitted by the
object being viewed or emanated from the
eyes of the viewer
Newton was the chief architect of the particle
theory of light
He believed the particles left the object and
stimulated the sense of sight upon entering the
eyes
Nature of Light –
Alternative View
Christian Huygens argued that light
might be some sort of a wave motion
Thomas Young (1801) provided the first
clear demonstration of the wave nature
of light
He showed that light rays interfere with
each other
Such behavior could not be explained by
particles
More Confirmation of Wave
Nature
During the nineteenth century, other
developments led to the general
acceptance of the wave theory of light
Maxwell asserted that light was a form
of high-frequency electromagnetic wave
Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s predictions
Particle Nature
Some experiments could not be
explained by the wave nature of light
The photoelectric effect was a major
phenomenon not explained by waves
When light strikes a metal surface,
electrons are sometimes ejected from the
surface
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron
is independent of the frequency of the light
Particle Nature, cont.
Einstein (in 1905) proposed an
explanation of the photoelectric effect
that used the idea of quantization
The quantization model assumes that the
energy of a light wave is present in
particles called photons
E = hƒ
h is Planck’s Constant and = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s
Dual Nature of Light
In view of these developments, light
must be regarded as having a dual
nature
Light exhibits the characteristics of a
wave in some situations and the
characteristics of a particle in other
situations
Nature prevents testing both qualities at
the same time
Measurements of the
Speed of Light
Since light travels at a very high speed,
early attempts to measure its speed
were unsuccessful
Remember c = 3.00 x 108 m/s
Galileo tried by using two observers
separated by about 10 km
The reaction time of the observers was
more than the transit time of the light
Measurement of the Speed of
Light – Roemer’s Method
Ole Roemer (1675)
used astronomical
observations to
estimate the speed
of light
He used the period
of revolution of Io, a
moon of Jupiter, as
Jupiter revolved
around the sun
Roemer’s Method, cont.
The periods of revolution were longer
when the Earth was receding from Jupiter
and shorter when the Earth was approaching
Using Roemer’s data, Huygens estimated
the lower limit of the speed of light to be
2.3 x 108 m/s
This was important because it demonstrated
that light has a finite speed as well as giving
an estimate of that speed
Measurements of the Speed
of Light – Fizeau’s Method
This was the first successful method for
measuring the speed of light by means
of a purely terrestrial technique
It was developed in 1849 by Armand
Fizeau
He used a rotating toothed wheel
The distance between the wheel
(considered to be the source) and a
mirror was known
Fizeau’s Method, cont.
d is the distance
between the wheel
and the mirror
t is the time for one
round trip
Then c = 2d / t
Fizeau found a
value of
c = 3.1 x 108 m/s
The Ray Approximation in
Geometric Optics
Geometric optics involves the study of the
propagation of light
It uses the assumption that light travels in a
straight-line path in a uniform medium and
changes its direction when it meets the
surface of a different medium or if the optical
properties of the medium are nonuniform
The ray approximation is used to represent
beams of light
Ray Approximation
The rays are straight
lines perpendicular
to the wave fronts
With the ray
approximation, we
assume that a wave
moving through a
medium travels in a
straight line in the
direction of its rays
Ray Approximation, cont.
If a wave meets a
barrier, we will
assume that λ<<d
d is the diameter of
the opening
This approximation
is good for the study
of mirrors, lenses,
prisms, etc.
Active Figure 35.4
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)
Reflection of Light
A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in
a medium
When it encounters a boundary with a
second medium, part of the incident ray
is reflected back into the first medium
This means it is directed backward into the
first medium
Specular
Reflection
Specular reflection
is reflection from a
smooth surface
The reflected rays
are parallel to each
other
All reflection in this
text is assumed to
be specular
Diffuse
Reflection
Diffuse reflection is
reflection from a rough
surface
The reflected rays travel
in a variety of directions
A surface behaves as a
smooth surface as long
as the surface
variations are much
smaller than the
wavelength of the light
Law of Reflection
The normal is a line
perpendicular to the
surface
It is at the point where
the incident ray strikes
the surface
The incident ray makes
an angle of θ1 with the
normal
The reflected ray makes
an angle of θ1’ with the
normal
Active Figure 35.6
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)
Law of Reflection, cont.
The angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence
θ1’= θ1
This relationship is called the Law of
Reflection
The incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal are all in the same plane
Multiple Reflections
The incident ray strikes the
first mirror
The reflected ray is directed
toward the second mirror
There is a second reflection
from the second mirror
Apply the Law of Reflection
and some geometry to
determine information about
the rays
Retroreflection
Assume the angle between two mirrors
is 90o
The reflected beam returns to the
source parallel to its original path
This phenomenon is called
retroreflection
Refraction of Light
When a ray of light traveling through a
transparent medium encounters a boundary
leading into another transparent medium, part
of the energy is reflected and part enters the
second medium
The ray that enters the second medium is
bent at the boundary
This bending of the ray is called refraction
Refraction, 2
The incident ray, the reflected ray, the
refracted ray, and the normal all lie on the
same plane
The angle of refraction depends upon the
material and the angle of incidence
sin θ2 v 2
constant
sin θ1 v1
v1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and
v2 is its speed in the second
Refraction of Light, 3
The path of the light
through the refracting
surface is reversible
For example, a ray that
travels from A to B
If the ray originated at
B, it would follow the
line AB to reach point
A
Following the Reflected and
Refracted Rays
Ray is the incident ray
Ray is the reflected
ray
Ray is refracted into
the lucite
Ray is internally
reflected in the lucite
Ray is refracted as it
enters the air from the
lucite
Active Figure 35.10
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)
Refraction Details, 1
Light may refract
into a material
where its speed is
lower
The angle of
refraction is less
than the angle of
incidence
The ray bends
toward the normal
Refraction Details, 2
Light may refract
into a material
where its speed is
higher
The angle of
refraction is greater
than the angle of
incidence
The ray bends away
from the normal
Light in a Medium
The light enters from the left
The light may encounter an
electron
The electron may absorb the
light, oscillate, and reradiate
the light
The absorption and radiation
cause the average speed of
the light moving through the
material to decrease
Active Figure 35.11
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)
The Index of Refraction
The speed of light in any material is less
than its speed in vacuum
The index of refraction, n, of a
medium can be defined as
speed of light in a vacuum c
n
speed of light in a medium v
Index of Refraction, cont.
For a vacuum, n = 1
We assume n = 1 for air also
For other media, n > 1
n is a dimensionless number greater
than unity
n is not necessarily an integer
Some Indices of Refraction
Frequency Between Media
As light travels from
one medium to
another, its frequency
does not change
Both the wave speed
and the wavelength do
change
The wavefronts do not
pile up, nor are created
or destroyed at the
boundary, so ƒ must
stay the same
Index of Refraction Extended
The frequency stays the same as the wave
travels from one medium to the other
v = ƒλ
ƒ1 = ƒ2 but v1 ≠ v2 so λ1 ≠ λ2
The ratio of the indices of refraction of the two
media can be expressed as various ratios
c
λ1 v1 n1 n2
λ2 v 2 c n1
n2
More About Index of
Refraction
The previous relationship can be
simplified to compare wavelengths and
indices: λ1n1 = λ2n2
In air, n1 ≈ 1 and the index of refraction
of the material can be defined in terms
of the wavelengths
λ λ in vacuum
n
λn λ in a medium
Snell’s Law of Refraction
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
θ1 is the angle of incidence
θ2 is the angle of refraction
The experimental discovery of this
relationship is usually credited to
Willebrord Snell and is therefore known
as Snell’s law of refraction
Snell’s Law – Example
Light is refracted into
a crown glass slab
θ1 = 30.0o, θ2 = ?
n1 = 1.00 and n2 =
1.52
From Table 35.1
θ2 = sin-1(n1 / n2) sin θ1
= 19.2o
The ray bends toward
the normal, as
expected
Huygens’s Principle
Huygens assumed that light is a form of
wave motion rather than a stream of
particles
Huygens’s Principle is a geometric
construction for determining the position
of a new wave at some point based on
the knowledge of the wave front that
preceded it
Huygens’s Principle, cont.
All points on a given wave front are
taken as point sources for the
production of spherical secondary
waves, called wavelets, which
propagate outward through a medium
with speeds characteristic of waves in
that medium
After some time has passed, the new
position of the wave front is the surface
tangent to the wavelets
Huygens’s Construction for a
Plane Wave
At t = 0, the wave front is
indicated by the plane AA’
The points are
representative sources for
the wavelets
After the wavelets have
moved a distance cΔt, a
new plane BB’ can be
drawn tangent to the
wavefronts
Huygens’s Construction for a
Spherical Wave
The inner arc
represents part of the
spherical wave
The points are
representative points
where wavelets are
propagated
The new wavefront is
tangent at each point to
the wavelet
Huygens’s Principle and the
Law of Reflection
The law of reflection can
be derived from
Huygens’s principle
AB is a wave front of
incident light
The wave at A sends out
a wavelet centered on A
toward D
The wave at B sends out
a wavelet centered on B
toward C
AD = BC = cΔt
Huygens’s Principle and the
Law of Reflection, cont.
Triangle ABC is
congruent to triangle
ADC
cos γ = BC / AC
cos γ’ = AD / AC
Therefore, cos γ = cos γ’
and γ = γ’
This gives θ1 = θ1’
This is the law of
reflection
Huygens’s Principle and the
Law of Refraction
Ray 1 strikes the
surface and at a
time interval Δt later,
ray 2 strikes the
surface
During this time
interval, the wave at
A sends out a
wavelet, centered at
A, toward D
Huygens’s Principle and the
Law of Refraction, cont.
The wave at B sends out a wavelet,
centered at B, toward C
The two wavelets travel in different
media, therefore their radii are different
From triangles ABC and ADC, we find
BC v1t AD v 2t
sin θ1 and sin θ2
AC AC AC AC
Huygens’s Principle and the
Law of Refraction, final
The preceding equation can be simplified
to
sin θ1 v1
sin θ2 v 2
sin θ1 c n1 n2
But
sin θ2 c n2 n1
1 sinn 1 2θ sin
and so nθ 2
This is Snell’s law of refraction
Dispersion
For a given material, the index of
refraction varies with the wavelength of
the light passing through the material
This dependence of n on λ is called
dispersion
Snell’s law indicates light of different
wavelengths is bent at different angles
when incident on a refracting material
Variation of Index of
Refraction with Wavelength
The index of refraction
for a material generally
decreases with
increasing wavelength
Violet light bends more
than red light when
passing into a refracting
material
Angle of Deviation
The ray emerges
refracted from its
original direction of
travel by an angle δ,
called the angle of
deviation
The angle of
deviation depends
on the wavelength
Refraction in a Prism
Since all the colors
have different
angles of deviation,
white light will
spread out into a
spectrum
Violet deviates the
most
Red deviates the least
The remaining colors
are in between
The Rainbow
A ray of light strikes a drop of water in
the atmosphere
It undergoes both reflection and
refraction
First refraction at the front of the drop
Violet light will deviate the most
Red light will deviate the least
The Rainbow, 2
At the back surface the light
is reflected
It is refracted again as it
returns to the front surface
and moves into the air
The rays leave the drop at
various angles
The angle between the white
light and the most intense
violet ray is 40°
The angle between the white
light and the most intense red
ray is 42°
Active Figure 35.23
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)
Observing the Rainbow
If a raindrop high in the sky is observed, the red ray is
seen
A drop lower in the sky would direct violet light to the
observer
The other colors of the spectra lie in between the red
and the violet
Double Rainbow
The secondary rainbow
is fainter than the
primary
The secondary rainbow
arises from light that
makes two reflections
from the interior surface
before exiting the
raindrop
Higher-order rainbows
are possible, but their
intensity is low
Total Internal Reflection
A phenomenon called total internal
reflection can occur when light is
directed from a medium having a given
index of refraction toward one having a
lower index of refraction
Possible Beam Directions
Possible directions of
the beam are indicated
by rays numbered 1
through 5
The refracted rays are
bent away from the
normal since n1 > n2
Critical Angle
There is a particular
angle of incidence that
will result in an angle of
refraction of 90°
This angle of incidence
is called the critical
angle, θC
n2
sin θC (for n1 n2 )
n1
Active Figure 35.26
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)
Critical Angle, cont.
For angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle, the beam is entirely
reflected at the boundary
This ray obeys the law of reflection at the
boundary
Total internal reflection occurs only
when light is directed from a medium of
a given index of refraction toward a
medium of lower index of refraction
Fiber Optics
An application of internal
reflection
Plastic or glass rods are
used to “pipe” light from
one place to another
Applications include:
medical use of fiber
optic cables for
diagnosis and correction
of medical problems
Telecommunications
Fiber Optics, cont.
A flexible light pipe
is called an optical
fiber
A bundle of parallel
fibers (shown) can
be used to construct
an optical
transmission line
Construction of an Optical
Fiber
The transparent
core is surrounded
by cladding
The cladding has a lower
n than the core
This allows the light in
the core to experience
total internal reflection
The combination is
surrounded by the
jacket
Fermat’s Principle
Pierre de Fermat developed a general
principle that can be used to determine
the path that light follows as it travels
from one point to another
Fermat’s principle states that when a
light ray travels between any two
points, its path is the one that
requires the smallest time interval
Fermat’s Principle, Some
Consequences
The paths of light in a homogenous
medium are straight lines
Because a straight line is the shortest
distance between two points
With the help of some geometry,
Fermat’s principle can be used to derive
Snell’s law of refraction and the law of
reflection