Aircraft Performance

Module 8
Where are we?

1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design

2
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Take-off Performance

 Introduction
 AEO Take-off distance and take-off run
 OEI Take-off distance and take-off run
 Accelerate-stop distance
 Speed versus distance
 Minimum runway length required
 Distance versus V1
 Balanced field length
 Field length limited take-off weight
 Take-off speeds
 Speed and time increments from VR to 35 ft
 Calculation of take-off speeds
 Typical take-off performance data

3
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Introduction
 Take-off performance analysis is the most complex aspect of aircraft
performance

• Many certification requirements and many definitions must be

considered when establishing take-off speeds and distances

• Many operational requirements must be considered when

establishing take-off weight limits

• Two cases must be considered

- Normal all-engine operation (AEO condition)

- Engine failure at the most critical time during the take-off (OEI
condition)

• Take-off may be continued OR discontinued following an engine

failure

4
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Introduction (Cont’d)
 The focus of this module is

• Definition of take-off distances and take-off speeds

• Calculation of take-off speeds
• Operation on dry runways

- Different requirements apply to wet and contaminated runways

- Wet and contaminated runways will be discussed later

 Next module will cover

• Calculation of take-off distances

• Take-off climb gradient requirements
• Obstacle clearance

5
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Introduction (Cont’d)

 Take-off profile

6
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Introduction (Cont’d)
 Take-off performance data is certified

• FAR / JAR 25 requirements define how take-off performance

data must be calculated for large transport category aircraft
• Data is produced by aircraft manufacturers and approved by
certification agencies and included in the Airplane Flight
Manual (AFM)

 FAR/JAR 25 requirements define various distances that must be

considered when determining the maximum permissible take-off
weight from a given runway

• All-Engine-Operating (AEO) take-off distance and take-off run

• One-engine-inoperative (OEI) take-off distance and take-off run
• AEO accelerate-stop distance
• OEI accelerate-stop distance

7
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
AEO take-off distance and take-off run
 AEO take-off distance (TOD AEO) and take-off run (TOR AEO)

• TOD AEO extends from brake release to the point where the aircraft
reaches the screen height (35 ft above the runway)
• TOR AEO extends from brake release to the point halfway between
lift-off and the point where the aircraft reaches 35 ft

8
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
AEO take-off distance and take-off run (cont’d)

 Rotation at VR

• VR is the airspeed at which the pilot pulls the stick aft so as to

generate a pitch rate of approximately 3 degrees / sec.
• VR is determined before take-off and the same VR speed will be
used whether an engine fails or not during take-off

 Lift-off at VLOF AEO

• VLOF AEO is the airspeed at which the main gear tires leave the
ground during an AEO take-off
9
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
AEO take-off distance and take-off run (cont’d)

 V2 is the take-off safety speed

• target climb speed in the take-off configuration if an engine fails

during take-off (OEI take-off climb speed)

• During an AEO take-off, the aircraft will reach a speed not less
than V2 at 35 ft and will continue to accelerate to a fixed steady
state climb speed (V2 + 10 kts is typical)

10
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
AEO take-off distance and take-off run (cont’d)

 FAR / JAR 25 requirements specify that TOD AEO and TOR AEO be
multiplied by a factor of 1.15 before being used to establish field-
length limited take-off weights

• Factored all-engine takeoff distance (FTOD AEO)

FTOD AEO = 1.15 * TOD AEO

• Factored all-engine takeoff run (FTOR AEO)

FTOR AEO = 1.15 * TOR AEO

11
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
OEI take-off distance and take-off run
 OEI take-off distance (TOD OEI) and take-off run (TOR OEI)

• TOD OEI extends from brake release to the point where the aircraft
is 35 ft above the runway

• TOR OEI extends from brake release to the point half way between
lift-off and the point where the aircraft reaches 35 ft

12
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 OEI take-off distance and take-off run (cont’d)

 FAR / JAR 25 requires no factorization of TOD OEI and TOR OEI

 VEF : engine failure speed

• Speed at which the critical engine fails.

 V1 : Take-off decision speed

• Speed at which the engine failure is recognized by the pilot and

the decision to continue or discontinue the take-off is made.

13
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
OEI take-off distance and take-off run (cont’d)

 The time delay between VEF and V1 is called the engine failure
recognition time (∆tREC)

• Determined during flight tests

• A time delay equal to the greater of the demonstrated value or 1.0

second is used for calculation of AFM take-off data

 Same value of VR is used for AEO and OEI conditions

14
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 OEI take-off distance and take-off run (cont’d)

 VLOF OEI is lower than VLOF AEO

• Same VR is used for AEO and OEI take-off

• Acceleration is lower with OEI due to lower thrust
• Time from VR to VLOF is similar for AEO and OEI take-offs

 Climb speed V2 must be reached at or before 35 ft

• An airspeed equal to V2 must be maintained during the climb

beyond the 35 ft point
15
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Accelerate-stop distance

 Accelerate-stop is a scenario where the aircraft is accelerated from

V = 0 to a speed V1 at which the pilots decides to abort the take-off
(throttle chop to idle) and bring the aircraft to a full stop on the
runway using all available deceleration devices

 Available deceleration devices include

• Brakes (maximum anti-skid braking)

• Ground lift dumpers (ground spoilers)
• Airbrakes (if any)
• Thrust reversers

 FAR / JAR 25 does not allow performance credit for use of thrust
reversers when calculating dry runway take-off performance

16
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Accelerate-stop distance (Cont’d)

 The accelerate-stop scenario is also sometimes referred to as the

rejected take-off (RTO)

 FAR / JAR 25 requires that two accelerate-stop cases be

considered :

• AEO accelerate-stop distance (ASD AEO)

• OEI accelerate-stop distance (ASD OEI)

 Demonstrated ASD versus AFM ASD

• Demonstrated accelerate-stop performance is obtained during

certification flight tests

• AFM ASD is obtained by adding conservatism to demonstrated

ASD

17
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Accelerate-stop distance (cont’d)
 Demonstrated accelerate-stop distance

 VFB is the speed at which the aircraft is in the full braking

configuration (all deceleration devices are fully activated)

18
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Accelerate-stop distance (cont’d)

 During accelerate-stop tests, the time delay between V1 and VFB is

determined

• An average of all available test points is used for AFM calculations

 AFM accelerate-stop distance (ASD AFM) is obtained by adding a

distance margin equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed to the
demonstrated accelerate-stop distance (ASD DEM)

• ASD AFM = ASD DEM + (2 * V1G)

• V1G = ground speed at V1

• ASD AFM is based on the most limiting of ASD AEO and ASD OEI

19
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Accelerate-stop distance (cont’d)
 Comparison of ASD AEO and ASD OEI for a given V1 speed

• Distance from brake release ( V = 0 ) to V1 is slightly shorter for the

AEO condition

• Distance from V1 to full stop is longer for the AEO condition

because the residual thrust from all engines after decision to
abort (may take more than 5 seconds for the engines to spool
down from take-off thrust to idle thrust following throttle chop)

 Item 2 above normally results in a greater increase in ASD than the

reduction obtained from item 1 and, as a consequence:

• ASD AEO tends to be greater than ASD OEI when operating on a dry
runway

20
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Speed versus distance

21
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Minimum runway length required

The runway length available for take-off must not be less

than the greater of the following distances:

FTOD AEO
Note: Based on a simple
TOD OEI scenario with no stopway,
no clearway and no
ASD AEO runway alignment
distance
ASD OEI

It is possible to minimize the runway length required by

selecting an optimumV1 speed

22
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Distance versus V1

DISTANCE Fixed values of weight, altitude,

temperature and flap setting

ASD (AEO)

ASD (OEI)
Minimum
Distance
(BFL)
FTOD (AEO)
TOD (OEI)

V1
Optimum V1
V1 = V1B

Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Balanced Field Length (BFL)
 V1 is a speed that is determined by the pilot before take-off
 ASD increases as V1 is increased
 TOD OEI reduces as V1 is increased
 Minimum runway length required when V1 = V1B (balanced V1)

• When V1 = V1B, ASD = TOD OEI = BFL

24
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Balanced Field Length (cont’d)

 V1 is the “go or no-go” decision speed

• If engine failure (EF) is recognized before V1, take-off must be

rejected or TOD OEI may exceed runway length available

• If EF is recognized after V1, take-off must be continued or ASD may

exceed runway length available

• If EF is recognized at V1, take-off can either be rejected or continued

while meeting the runway length requirements
25
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Field length limited take-off weight
 The field length limited take-off weight is the maximum weight at
which it is possible to meet the applicable operational requirements
(e.g. FAR 121 or JAR OPS-1)

 Operational requirements make references to stopway, clearway

and runway alignment distance

 Clearways and stopways allow higher take-off weights for a given

runway length

 A clearway is an area beyond the runway, not less than 500 ft

wide, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway
and under the control of the airport authorities. It is permitted to
overfly the clearway before reaching the 35 foot point but the take-
off run must not exceed the end of the runway.

26
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Field length limited take-off weight (Cont’d)
 A stopway is an area beyond the runway, no less wide than the
width of the runway and centrally located about the extended center
line of the runway. A stopway must be able to support the airplane
during a rejected take-off without causing structural damage to the
airplane. Stopways must be designated by the airport authorities for
use in decelerating the airplane during the rejected take-off. It is
permitted to use the stopway during an accelerate-stop.

 JAR OPS-1 requires that runway alignment distance (RAD) be

considered when determining field length limited weights
• RAD is the portion of runway length used in order to position the
aircraft for take-off

Effective runway length = runway length – RAD

• RAD is essentially a function of aircraft length, minimum turning

radius and location of the taxi way relative to the runway

27
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Field length limited take-off weight (cont’d)
 Airport data is sometimes based on following definitions:

TORA = Take-Off Run Available = runway length

TODA = Take-Off Distance Available = runway length + clearway length
ASDA = Accel.-Stop Dist. Available = runway length + stopway length

 General scenario for determination of field length limited take-off weight

(with stopway, clearway and RAD)

FTOD AEO + RAD ≤ TODA

TOD OEI + RAD ≤ TODA

FTOR AEO + RAD ≤ TORA

TOR OEI + RAD ≤ TORA

ASD AEO + RAD ≤ ASDA

ASD OEI + RAD ≤ ASDA
28
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Take-off speeds
 Before take-off, V1, VR and V2 speeds must be determined by the
pilot

• Indicated Airspeeds (not ground speeds)

• Sometimes referred to as “V speeds”
• Values can be “bugged” on the pilot airspeed indicator

 V1 must respect the following limits

• V1 must not be less than V1MCG

• V1 must not be greater than VR
• V1 must not be greater than V1MBE

29
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Take-off speeds (Cont’d)
 V1MCG is the minimum V1 speed based on VMCG considerations

• V1MCG is the speed reached one second after an engine failure at

VMCG

• VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground, i.e. the

minimum speed at which an engine failure would result in a lateral
deviation of not more than 30 ft from the runway center line in the
case where the take-off is continued .
• Aircraft may not be controllable if an engine fails and the pilot
decides to continue the take-off at a speed < V1MCG

 V1MBE is the maximum V1 speed based on maximum brake energy

considerations

• A take-off rejected at V1MBE will cause the wheel brakes to absorb

the Maximum allowable Brake Energy

30
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Take-off speeds (cont’d)
 VR must respect the following limits

• VR must not be less than V1MCG

• VR must not be less than 1.05*VMCA

• VR must be selected such that the aircraft will reach a speed of V2

at or before the 35 ft point when the recommended take-off
technique is used

• VR is such that when the aircraft is rotated at the maximum

practicable rate at VR, the lift-off speed is not less than

1.05 VMU1 in the OEI condition

1.10 VMU2 in the AEO condition

31
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Take-off speeds (cont’d)

 VMCA is the minimum control speed in the air

• VMCA is the minimum speed at which it is possible to fly the aircraft

with one engine inoperative and the other engine(s) at maximum
take-off thrust

 VMU1 is the minimum unstick speed with OEI, i.e. the minimum
speed at which the aircraft can lift-off from the ground and climb
safely with OEI

 VMU2 is the minimum unstick speed with AEO, i.e. the minimum
speed at which the aircraft can lift-off from the ground and climb
safely with AEO

32
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Take-off speeds (cont’d)
 V2 must respect the following limits

• V2 must not be less than 1.13 VSR (for two-engine aircraft)

• V2 must not be less than 1.1*VMCA

• At V2 , a maneuvering margin equivalent to not less than a 30

degree bank turn must be available prior to stall warning

• At V2 + 10 kts, a maneuvering margin equivalent to not less than a

40 degree bank must be available prior to stall warning

 The diagram on the next slide shows the various limits that must be
considered for V1, VR and V2

• Double arrows represent take-off speed increments as obtained

from take-off performance tests

33
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Take-off speeds (cont’d)

34
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Speed and time increments from VR to 35 ft
 Speed and time increments between rotation, lift-off and 35 ft are measured during
take-off performance tests and form the basis for calculation of:

• VR and V2

• OEI and AEO T.O. distance from rotation to 35 ft

 Speed increments are ground speed increments

 Speed and time increments are normally plotted as a function of reference climb /
acceleration parameter such as gradient at 35 ft

Gradient at 35 ft = (T-D)/W – θ based on a speed of V2 and gear up

Gradient covers range of OEI and AEO operating conditions
Separate plots for (1) rotation to lift and (2) lift-off to 35 ft
θ = runway slope (tangent of the angle between the runway and the
horizon) – slope is positive uphill and negative downhill

35
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Speed and time increments from VR to 35 ft (Cont’d)
 From VR to VLOF

ΔV is a ground speed increment

GRAD35 = (T-D)/W – θ based on a speed of V2 and gear up

OEI AEO

n c e with
ia
f o r c ompl ements)
( ir
m u requ
V

36
Take-off performance (1 of
- θ2)
 Speed and time increments from VR to 35 ft (Cont’d)
 From VLOF to 35 ft
ΔV is a ground speed increment
GRAD35 = (T-D)/W – θ based on a speed of V2 and gear up

OEI AEO

37
Take-off performance (1 of 2) - θ
 Calculation of take-off speeds
 Take-off speeds VR and V2 are calculated using:

• Take-off speed increments

• Flowchart shown previously

• Assume V2 = V2min

• V LOF OEI = V2min – ΔV (LOF-35 ft)OEI

• V R = VLOF OEI – ΔV (ROT-LOF)OEI

• V LOF AEO = VR + ΔV (ROT-LOF)AEO

• V 35 AEO = VLOF AEO + ΔV (LOF-35 ft)AEO

 The speeds calculated in each step must be compared with the

applicable limits (e.g. V R must not be less than 1.05 Vmca). An
iterative procedure must be applied if limits are encountered.
38
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
 Typical take-off performance data
 The next two slides present typical take-off performance data

 First slide is a typical take-off distance versus weight chart that is

used for marketing purposes

 Second slide presents tabulated Vspeeds and distances taken from

a Quick Reference Handbook (QRH)

 Even if the terminology “take-off distance” is used, the distances

shown are the most limiting of :

- FTOD AEO
- TOD OEI
- ASD AEO
- ASD OEI

 Typically, the distance shown is the BFL

39
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Typical take-off performance data

40
Take-off performance (1 of 2)
Typical take-off performance data

41
Take-off performance (1 of 2)