Differential Protection

Differential Protection

Used where:

Protection co-ordination is difficult / not possible using time delayed elements

Fast fault clearance is critical

Can be used on all items of plant in one form or another (i.e. Generators, transformers, lines, cables, busbars, motors) to form a defined zone of protection dictated by current transformer location.

Differential Protection Principle

Protected Circuit

Differential Protection Principle

Protected Circuit

High Impedance Principle

High Impedance Principle

Based on Merz-Price circulating current principle

Requires matched current transformers of low reactance design, typically class X or equivalent Equal CT ratios Typically current operated relay with an external stabilising resistor Non-linear resistor may be required to limit voltage across relay circuit during internal faults Suitable for zones up to 200 - 300 metres (typically)

High Impedance Principle

Protected Circuit

ZM

RCT
RL IS IF RL

RCT

ZM

VS
RL

R RL

Maximum voltage across relay circuit, Vs = If (RCT + 2RL) To limit current through relay to < Is the relay impedance Rrelay > Vs/Is

Stabilising Resistor

Use of stabilising resistor:

Where relay impedance alone is too low to ensure stability then the relay circuit impedance can be increased through the addition of an external resistor connected in series with the relay Required circuit impedance > Vs/Is RSTAB > (Vs/Is) - Rrelay

Current Transfomer Output

Current transformer knee point requirements:

Current transformers must have sufficient output to ensure fast operation of relay during internal fault conditions Required Vk > 2 Vs (typically - depends on actual relay type)

Non-Linear Resistors (Metrosils)

During internal faults the high impedance relay circuit constitutes an excessive burden to the CTs. A very high voltage develops across the relay circuit and the CTs which can damage the insulation of CTs, secondary wiring and relay.

Magnitude of peak voltage VP is given by an approximate formula (based on experimental results)

VP = 2 2VK (VF - VK)

Where VF = If (RCT + 2RL + RSTAB + Rrelay)

Metrosil required if VP > 3kV

High Impedance Circuit Arrangement

I

RST VM VS RR

Metrosil Characteristic V = CI

Suitable values of C & chosen based on :

(1) Max secondary current under fault conditions (2) Relay setting voltage

Low Impedance (Biased) Protection

Low Impedance Principle

High Impedance protection limits the spill current to a value less then relay setting Low Impedance principle provides no such limit on spill but instead artificially raises the setting of the relay The higher the through current, the higher the potential spill and hence the greater the increase in setting Required The increase in setting is therefore normally based on a percentage of the through current

Protection is commonly referred to as percentage biased differential protection

Biased Differential Scheme

Spill Current

Low Imp.

Trip

No Trip

Is
Through Current

High Imp.

Biased Differential Scheme

Differential Current

I1

BIAS

BIAS I1 - I2

I1 - I2 I2

OPERATE

OPERATE

RESTRAIN

I1 + I2 2

Mean Thro Current

Bias = Differential (or Spill) Current Mean Through Current

Biased Characteristic
Differential Current
5.0

30% Bias

4.0

OPERATE
3.0

RESTRAIN
2.0

1.0

0.2 2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

Through Current

Low Impedance Principle

Does not rely on equal ratio CTs (ratio correction can be done via external interposing CTs or internally to the relay) Limit on allowable spill dictated by percentage of bias used - practical limit to give sufficient sensitivity to internal faults Amount of spill related to CT size - stability limits and CT requirements are therefore dependant on each other

Unit Protection Involving Distance Between Circuit Breakers

A B

Relaying Point

R Trip B

Trip A

Simple Local Differential Protection

Unit Protection Involving Distance Between Circuit Breakers

A
Communication Channel

Relaying Point R Trip A R

Relaying Point

Trip B

Unit Protection Involving Distance Between Circuits

Basic Pilot Wire Schemes with Bias

B I V

OP

OP

Circulating Current

Summation Transformers

Summation Transformer Sensitivity for Different Faults

IA 1 IB 1 IC Output for operation = K

3
IN Let output for operation = K

(1)

Consider A-E fault for relay operation :

IA (1 + 1 + 3) > K IA > 1/5K or 20%K

Summation Transformer Sensitivity for Different Faults

(2) B-E fault for relay operation : IB > 25%K C-E fault for relay operation :
IC > 331/3%K

IB (1 + 3) > K

(3)

IC x (3) > K

(4)

AB fault for relay operation : IAB > 100%K

BC fault for relay operation : IBC > 100%K AC fault for relay operation : IAC > 50%K

IAB x (1) > K

(5)

IBC x (1) > K

(6)

IAC (1 + 1) > K

Zero Summation Transformer Output for 2-1-1 Current Distribution

Fault Settings for Plain Feeders

Input transformer summation ratio is 1.25 : 1 : N
where N = 3 for normal use and N = 6 to give low earth fault settings Fault N = 3 A-N B-N C-N A-B B-C C-A A-B-C 0.19 x Ks x In 0.25 x Ks x In 0.33 x Ks x In 0.80 1.00 0.44 0.51 x x x x Ks Ks Ks Ks x x x x In In In In Settings N = 6 0.12 x Ks x In 0.14 x Ks x In 0.17 x Ks x In

Ks is a setting multiplier, variable from 0.5 to 2.0 In is the relay rated current 1 Amp or 5 Amps

Line Charging Current

Line Charging Currents

Line charging currents flow in at one end of the feeder only and is therefore potentially capable of unbalancing a protective system. Charging currents (or capacitance currents) of overhead lines generally low. Charging current levels of underground cables however can be high enough to dictate minimum permissible operating level of the protection.

Line Charging Current

ICA 1 ICB 1 ICC N

Line charging current produce certain amount of unbalancing ATs under normal steady state conditions when balanced 3 charging current flows. Unbalancing ATs = 3 IC ATs of most sensitive fault setting = (2 + N) IA where IA = setting for A-E fault

For stability , (2 N) A A For N 3, 3 C 3 C (2 N)

A 0.35 C

Solidly Earthed System

Maximum unbalance amp-turns is obtained when an external double phase to ground fault on phases B & C occurs. Charging current flows in phase A only since B & C phase capacitances are shorted out.
IC 1 1

Solid Earthed System

Unbalancing ATs due to charging current = (2 + N) IC ATs of most sensitive fault setting = (2 + N) IA where IA = setting for A-E fault For stability , (2 + N) IA > (2 + N) IC

IA

> IC

Note: For EHV cables, one relay per phase is sometimes used to avoid lack of sensitivity for phase faults.

Pilot Characteristics

Pilot Wire
Resistance and shunt capacitance of pilots introduce magnitude and phase differences in pilot terminal currents. Pilot Resistance Attenuates the signal and affects effective minimum operating levels. To maintain constant operating levels for wide range of pilot resistance, padding resistor used.

Rp/2

Rp/2

Padding resistance R set to (1000 - Rp) ohms

Pilot Capacitance

Circulating current systems : Pilot capacitance effectively in parallel with relay operating coil. Capacitance at centre of pilots has zero volts across them.

Pilot Isolation
Electromagnetic Induction Field of any adjacent conductor may induce a voltage in the pilot circuit. Induced voltage can be severe when : (1) Pilot wire laid in parallel to a power circuit.

(2) Pilot wire is long and in close proximity to power circuit.

(3) Fault Current is severe. Induced voltage may amount to several thousand volts.

Danger to personnel
Danger to equipment Difference in Station Earth Potentials

Can be a problem for applications above 33kV - even if feeder is short.

Formula for Induced Voltage

e = 0.232 I L Log10 De/S where I L e f s = = = = = primary line E/F current length of pilots in miles Equiv. Depth of earth return in metres = 655 . e/f soil resistivity in .m frequency separation between power line and pilot circuit in metres

De =

Effect of screening is not considered in the formula.

If the pilot is enclosed in lead sheath earthed at each end, screening is provided by the current flowing in the sheath. Sheath should be of low resistance. 0.3 V / A / Mile 0.1 V / A / Mile Unscreened Pilots Screened Pilots

Pilot circuits and all directly connected equipment should be insulated to earth and other circuits to an adequate voltage level. Two levels are recognised as standard : 5kV & 15kV

Relay Case 5kV Relay Input Pilot Terminal Relay Circuit Pilot Wire 2kV 5kV 15kV

Supervision & Intertripping

Supervision of Pilot Circuits

Pilot circuits are subject to a number of hazards, such as : - Manual Interference - Acts of Nature (storms, subsidence, etc.) - Mechanical Damage (excavators, impacts) Therefore supervision of the pilots is felt to be necessary. Two types exist : - Signal injection type - Wheatstone Bridge type

Pilot Wire Supervision

Circulating Current Schemes Pilot Wire Open Circuited Pilot Wire Short Circuited Pilot Wire Crossed Maloperate Stable Maloperate

Maloperation occurs even under normal loading conditions if 3-phase setting < ILOAD. Overcurrent check may be used to prevent maloperation. Overcurrent element set above maximum load current.

Overcurrent Check Relays

A B C 50 A PILOT WIRE RELAY (87PW)

50C

50 G

Overcurrent Check Relays

50A-1

87PW-1 TRIP CIRCUITS

+
50C-1

50G-1

Isoc > Ifl 0.9 Isef > 1.2 IZ Isef < 0.8 x Ief

System Requiring Intertripping

Source
Feeder Protection Busbar Protection

Transformer Feeder - Intertripping

PILOT WIRES

TRIP

PILOT WIRE PROTECTION

PILOT WIRE PROTECTION

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

TRIP

DESTABILISE AND INTERTRIP

Numerical Feeder Differential Protection

All Digital Design

0IIIIII0I0.....0I0IIIIII0 Digital messages

End A

End B

A/D

P Digital communication interface

Direct Optical Fibre Link

OPGW

Interfacing to PCM Multiplexers

interface unit
850nm multimode optical fibre

Multiplexer
G.703 or V.35 electrical

interface unit

ISDN
X.21 electrical

Multiplexed Optical Link

Earth wire optical fibre

Multiplexer
34 Mbit/s
64k bits/s Telephone Telecontrol

Multiplexer

End A
Teleprotection

End B

Multiplexed Microwave Link

PCM Multiplexer

Telephone 64k bits/s Telecontrol

End A

Teleprotection

End B

Optical Budgets for Direct Optical Connection Between Relays

850nm Multi Mode Min. Transmit Output Level -19.8dBm 1300nm Multi Mode -8.2dBm 1300nm Single Mode -8.2dBm 1550nm Single Mode -8.2dBm

Receiver Sensitivity
Optical Budget Less Safety Margin (3dB)* Typical Cable Loss Max. Transmission Distance

-25.4dBm
5.6dB 2.6dB 2.6dB/km 1km

-38.2dBm
30.0dB 27.0dB 0.8dB/km 33.7km

-38.2dBm
30.0dB 27.0dB 0.4dB/km 67.5km

-38.2dBm
30.0dB 27.0dB 0.3dB/km 90km

Short Haul
Key: * 3dB allowance for joint loss/ageing

Long Haul

Propagation Delay Problem

Relay A Current at B Current received from A

Relay B

Propagation delay

Propagation Delay Compensation

Synchronise sampling in both relays

Direct comparison of samples

IRIG-B a possibility, but not always available (= protection out of service) Asynchronous sampling Continual time difference measurement

Vector transformation in software

MiCOM-P540-52

Capacitive Current Compensation

IL ZL

IR

IchL
VL

IchR

VR

Conventional current differential protection needs to be set above Ich to avoid tripping for 50/60Hz line charging current Modern relays can extract Ich to allow more sensitive current settings to be applied

Protection of Transformer Feeders

Power transformer

Ratio correction

Vectorial correction Virtual interposing CT Virtual interposing CT

Direct Intertrip

Relay A
DTT=1

Relay B

Transformer Protection

Data Message +

The channel could alternatively be used along with the distance elements and PSL to configure permissive or blocking distance aided schemes

Permissive Intertrip
IB F Relay A Relay B Busbar Relay
PIT=1

Data Message
+ +

Example shows interlocked overcurrent protection Feeder fault seen within busbar zone Remote end trip after set delay for PIT & current > Is1