Chapter 8
Geocomputation Part A: Cellular Automata (CA) & Agent-based modelling (ABM)
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Geocomputation
the art and science of solving complex spatial problems with computers [Link] Key new areas of geocomputation:
Presentation 8A: Geosimulation (CA and ABM) Presentation 8B: Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs); & Evolutionary computing (EC)
3rd edition
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Geocomputation
Many other, well-established areas:
Automated zoning/re-districting (e.g. AZP) Cluster hunting (e.g. GAM/K) Interactive data mining tools (e.g. brushing and linking, cross-tabbed attribute mapping) Visualisation tools (e.g. 3D and 4D visualisation, immersive systems some also very new!) Advanced raster processing (e.g. ACS/distance transforms, visibility analysis, image processing etc.) Heuristic and metaheuristic spatial optimisation, . and more!
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Geocomputation: Geosimulation
For the purposes of this discussion: Geosimulation includes
Cellular automata (CA) Agent-based modelling (ABM)
Geosimulation is particularly concerned with
Researching processes Identifying and understanding emergent behaviours and outcomes Spatio-temporal modelling
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Geocomputation: ANNs
In the next presentation on geocomputation: ANNs discussed include
Multi-level perceptrons (MLPs) Radial basis function neural networks (RBFNNs) Self organising feature maps (SOFMs)
ANNs are particularly concerned with
Function approximation and interpolation Image analysis and classification Spatial interaction modelling
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Geocomputation: Evolutionary computing
In the next presentation on geocomputation: EC elements discussed include
Genetic algorithms (GAs) Genetic programming (GP)
EC is particularly concerned with
Complex problem solving using GAs Model design using GP methods
3rd edition
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Cellular automata (CA)
CA are computer based simulations that use a static cell framework or lattice as the environment (model of space) Each cells has a well-defined state at every specific discrete point in time Cell states may change over time according to state transition rules Transition rules that are applied to cells depend upon their neighbourhoods (i.e. the states of adjacent cells typically)
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Cellular automata
State variables
typically binary (e.g. alive/dead), but can be more complex may have fixed (captured) states
Spatial framework
typically a regular lattice, but could be irregular boundary issues and edge wrapping options
Neighbourhood structure
Typically Moore (8-way) or von Neumann (4-way) Typically lag=1 but lag=2 .. and alternatives are possible
Transition rules
Typically deterministic but may be more complex Time treated as discrete steps and all operations are synchronous (parallel not sequential changes)
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Cellular automata
Neighbourhood structure
Typically Moore (8-way) or von Neumann (4-way) Typically lag=1 but lag=2 .. and alternatives are possible
3rd edition
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Cellular automata
Example 1 Game of life
State variables: cells contain a 1 or a 0 (alive or dead) Spatial framework: operates over a rectangular lattice (with square cells) Neighbourhood structure: 4 adjacent (rooks move) cells State transition rules: time tntn+1
1. Survival: if state=1 and in neighbourhood 2 or 3 cells have state=1 then state 1 else state 0 2. Reproduction: if state=0 but state=3 or 4 in neighbouring cells then state 1 3. Death (loneliness or overcrowding): if state=1 but state<>2 or 3 in neighbourhood then state 0
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Cellular automata
Life (ABM framework): Click image to run model (Internet access required)
t0 35% cell occupancy
Randomly assigned
3rd edition
tn evolved pattern
(still evolving to density 4%)
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Cellular automata
Example 2 Heatbugs
State variables:
Cells may be occupied by bugs or not Cells have an ambient temperature value 0 Bugs have an ideal heat (min and max rates settable) i.e. a state of happiness
State transition rules: time tntn+1
1. Bugs can move, but only to an adjacent cell that does not have a bug on it 2. Bugs move if they are unhappy too hot or too cold (if they can move to a better adjacent cell) 3. Bugs emit heat (min and max rates settable) 4. Heat diffuses slowly through the grid and some is lost to evaporation
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Cellular automata
Heatbugs (ABM framework): Click image to run model (Internet access required)
3rd edition
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Cellular automata
Example geospatial modelling applications:
Bushfires Deforestation Earthquakes Rainforest dynamics Urban systems
But..
Not very flexible Difficult to adequately model mobile entities (e.g. pedestrians, vehicles) interest in ABM
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Agent-based modelling
Dynamic systems of multiple interacting agents Agents are complex individuals with various primary characteristics, e.g.
Autonomy, Mobility, Reactive or pro-active behaviour, Vision, Communications capabilities, Learning capabilities
Operate within a model or simulation environment Time treated synchronously or asynchronously CA can be modelling using ABM, but reverse may be difficult Bottom-up rather than top-down modelling
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Agent-based modelling
Sample applications:
Archaeological reconstruction Biological models of infectious diseases Modelling economic processes Modelling political processes Traffic simulations Analysis of social networks Pedestrian modelling (crowds behaviour, evacuation modelling etc.)
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Agent-based modelling
Example 1: Schelling segregation model
Actually a CA model implemented here in an ABM framework. Agents represent people; agent interactions model a social process
Spatial framework: Cell based State variables: grey cell unoccupied; red occupied by red group; black occupied by black group Neighbourhood structure (Moore) State transition rules:
If proportion of neighbours of the same colour x% then stay where you are, else If proportion of neighbours of the same colour <x% then move to an unoccupied cell or leave entirely
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Agent-based modelling
Schelling (ABM framework): Click image to run model (Internet access required)
3rd edition
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Agent-based modelling
Example 2: Pedestrian movement
Realistic spatial framework Multiple passengers arriving and departing Multiple targets ticket machines, ticket booths, subway platforms, mainline platforms, shop, exits Free movement with obstacle avoidance
3rd edition
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Agent-based modelling
Pedestrian movement: Click image to run model (Internet access required)
3rd edition
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Agent-based modelling
Advantages of ABM
Captures emergent phenomena
Interactions can be complicated, non-linear, discontinuous or discrete Populations can be heterogeneous, have differential learning patterns, different levels of rationality etc
Provides a natural environment for study
Spatial framework can be complex and realistic
Flexible
Can handle multiple scales, distance-related components, directional components, agent complexity etc
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Agent-based modelling
Disadvantages of/issues for ABM
What is the real purpose of model? What is the appropriate scale for research? How are the results to be interpreted? How robust is the model? Can the model be replicated? Can the results be validated? Are behaviours/patterns observed likely to occur in the real world? How much is the outcome dependent on the model implementation (design, toolset, parameters etc.)?
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Agent-based modelling
Choosing a simulation/modelling system
Ease of development Size of user community Availability of support Availability of demonstration/template models Availability of how-to materials and documentation Licensing policy (open source, shareware/freeware, proprietary)
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Agent-based modelling
Choosing a simulation/modelling system
Key features
Number of agents that can be modelled Degree of agent-agent interaction supported Model environments (and scale) supported (network, raster, vector) Multi-level support (agent hierarchies) Spatial relationships support Event scheduling/sequencing facilities
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Agent-based modelling
Major simulation/modelling systems
open source: SWARM, MASON, Repast shareware/freeware: StarLogo, NetLogo, OBEUS) proprietary systems: AgentSheets, AnyLogic
3rd edition
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