INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

MEC 441

By- Himanshu Gupta Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering Department Lovely Professional University

Sunday, 07 April 2013

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

By- Himanshu Gupta

Value Engineering Value Value means different things to different people. Value is the word used by individuals without being clearly understood. Different departments of the same company has different opinions of value. The designer relates value with reliability, purchase men with price paid for item, production person equates the value with what it costs to manufacture and sales person with what customer is willing to pay. The value is of four types 1) Cost Value: It is sum of all costs incurred in manufacturing the product. The cost value is the sum of raw material cost, labour cost, tooling cost and other overhead costs to produce the product. 2) Exchange value: It is the amount that we are willing to accept in trade for an item. Sometimes this amount is expressed in monetary terms, or it is a defined product or a certain quality that is acceptable in trade of other items.
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Value Engineering 3) Use value: It is a value received from the delivered function. It usually represents the properties and qualities which perform a function. 4) Esteem Value: It is that amount of cost included into the product to enhance its customer appeal (desire to own).
Definition of Value Engineering Value Engineering (VE) is the process of determining the value of a product and/or service during various stages of the product life cycle (PLC).Value Engineering describes a value study on a project or product that is being developed. It analyses the cost of the project as it is being designed. Value Analysis describes a value study of a project or product that is already built or designed and analyses the product to see if it can be improved. Value management identifies the methodology and techniques used in value work, but does not distinguish between engineering of a building or facility and the analysis of a product. It is used to describe the entire field of value endeavours. Sunday, 07 April 2013 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY By- Himanshu Gupta 3

Value Engineering Uses of Value Engineering It is a cost prevention as well as cost elimination technique thus reducing cost of the product. Helps employees for better understanding of their jobs and orients them towards creative thinking. Balance the cost and performance. Prevents over design of components. Increases the profits and deflates costs. Helps to satisfy the customer with companys products.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

By- Himanshu Gupta

Value Engineering Uses of Value Engineering It is a cost prevention as well as cost elimination technique thus reducing cost of the product. Helps employees for better understanding of their jobs and orients them towards creative thinking. Balance the cost and performance. Prevents over design of components. Increases the profits and deflates costs. Helps to satisfy the customer with companys products.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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By- Himanshu Gupta

Value Engineering Difference between Value Engineering and Cost Reduction

Value Engineering Cost Reduction

It is function oriented

It is item oriented

It applies innovative approach and ideas It follows past practices It exercises maximum creativity There is cost visibility on the following functional basis: basic function, secondary function, unnecessary function, essential function The value engineering approach does not compromise with performance, quality and reliability It is analytical in approach There is a cost visibility on the following parameters: part/component wise, process wise, materials, labour, overhead etc. There is a tendency towards compromising quality and reliability

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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Value Engineering Phases and Constituent Elements of each phase of VE 1. ORIENTATION PHASE Select - Project to be handled by V.E team Establish - Priorities Plan - Specific product Appoint - The team Brief - Members regarding the project Review - Methodology to be followed for investigation Prepare - Terms of reference for selected project Fix - Responsibility for data collection

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Value Engineering Phases and Constituent Elements of each phase of VE 2. INFORMATION PHASE Locate - Data from different sources Identify - Facts Arrange - Facts into required form 3. FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS PHASE List - The components or parts Prepare - Verb-Noun description of functions Establish - Cost of Basic function Estimate - Worth of each basic function Determine - Value improvement potential

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Value Engineering 4. SPECULATION OR CREATIVE PHASE Conduct - Creative problem solving Generate - Ideas, Combine and/or rearrange them to provide different ways to accomplish basic functions 5. EVALUATION PHASE Short List - Creative Ideas Develop - Ideas functionally Evaluate - Ideas according to the prefixed criteria Rank - Alternatives according to the cost reduction potential Select - One or more alternatives for development

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By- Himanshu Gupta

Value Engineering 6. DEVELOPMENT PHASE Analyse - The alternatives for technical requirement Confirm - The economic feasibility Arrange - The necessary test runs Select - One or two alternatives for recommendations

7. RECOMMENDATION PHASE Prepare - The reports of V.A. proposals Make - Presentation to the decision making authority Submit - A definite plan for action Secure - Approval for implementation

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Value Engineering 8. IMPLEMENTATION PHASE Obtain - Approval to the proposal Fix - Responsibility for implementation Authorise - Change to convert recommendations into actions Expedite - Implementation Resolve - Problem identified during implementation Train - Workmen Retime - Jobs 9. FOLLOW-UP PHASE Prepare - The reports of V.A. proposals Make - Presentation to the decision making authority Submit - A definite plan for action Secure - Approval for implementation
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Applications of Value Engineering Some typical applications are as follows: Make design changes to reduce the construction cost in a large garage for

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Benefits of Value Engineering i. ii. iii. iv. v. It helps in improving efficiency as well as effectiveness of products, systems and procedures. In general VE: Enables people to pin point areas that need attention and improvement. Provides a method of generating ideas and alternatives including intangible factors. Provides a vehicle for dialogue. Documents the rationale behind decision. Materially improves the value of goods and services.

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Functional Analysis approach of Value Engineering

Value engineering is based on a functional approach. A product is analysed by the function it is required to perform. Product is essentially the result of an appropriate design to perform certain primary functions. Product also has certain secondary functions. Logically, as per value engineering concept, the cost/value of the product must be distributed between these two functions, proportional to their relative importance. Primary Function Primary functions are the basic purpose of the product and/or the service. For example, consider the case of the ipod. The primary function of the ipod is to reproduce recorded music. Secondary Function This is derived from design considerations. If the design is based on wiring of transistors and valves, such items provide secondary functions. If the design is based on ICs and PCBs, the method chosen to perform the basic function changes and secondary functions are provided by ICs and PCBs.
Sunday, 07 April 2013 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY By- Himanshu Gupta 14

Functional Analysis approach of Value Engineering

Optional Functions These are functions which do not directly contribute to its functional value. Providing alternative features in ipod like graphic equalizers, stereo-effects are examples of optional functions. Optional features cost money but the resultant value is only marginal. If it is not properly applied, the high cost might make the product non-competitive. A value engineer must eliminate unnecessary functions. If the function cant be eliminated, then the need to find out the means of reducing the corresponding components cost for retaining such function must be found out.

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Functional Analysis approach of Value Engineering

Illustration- Functional Analysis of a dot-pen
Item
Dot Point Plastic body Top cover Bottom guide

Function
To write on paper Facilitates holding between fingers Prevents dust and acts as holding filler Guides filler and fits the outer body and inner body together by grooves Provides spring loading to filler Helps to write on paper and holds ink inside

Primary

Secondary

Retainer Spring Filler

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RELIABILITY
DEFINITION Reliability is the ability of an item to perform its intended function under stated operation conditions for a given period of time. The definition stresses on four significant elements probability, intended function, time and operating conditions. Probability Consideration of variation makes reliability a probability. It is possible to identify the frequency distribution of an item, which permits prediction of life of the item, e.g., the probability of an item functioning is 0.85 for 60 hours indicates that only 85 times out of 100, we would expect the item to be functioning for a period of 60 hours. Intended Function For an item to be reliable, it must perform a certain functions satisfactorily when called upon to do.
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RELIABILITY
Time Time is the most important factor in the assessment of reliability, since it represents a measure of period during which one can expect a certain degree of performance from an item. Stated Conditions The applications and operating circumstances under which an item is put to use is an important component of reliability. As the operating conditions change, the reliability of an item also changes. Operating conditions such as temperature, humidity, torque, and corrosive atmosphere all have a definite effect on performance. Thus, the reliability can be stated as The reliability of a 60 watts incandescent bulb has been estimated to be 0.95 for 1200 hours providing 20 candles output under 180-230 volts at normal environmental conditions.

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RELIABILITY
Failure Failure of an item represents unreliability. Thus, to compute the reliability of an item, it is necessary to understand the concept of failure. A deviation in the properties of an item from the prescribed conditions is considered as fault. A state of fault is denoted as Failure. An item is considered to have failed under one of the following conditions: When it becomes completely inoperable. When it is still operable, but no longer able to perform a required function. When a serious deterioration makes the item unsafe for its continued use.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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RELIABILITY
Causes of Failure Some of the causes of failures are: Deficiencies in design. Improper selection of process and manufacturing technique. Lack of knowledge and experience. Error of assembly. Improper service conditions. Inadequate maintenance. Variation in environmental and operating conditions. Human errors.

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RELIABILITY
Nature of Failures The different modes of failure are: 1) Catastrophic Failures: In this case, a normally operating item suddenly becomes inoperative. Example: Blowing of a fuse or electric bulb. 2) Degradation (Creeping) Failures: These failures occur gradually because of change in some parameter with time. Example, change in resistance will affect the performance of a resistor. 3) Independent Failures: These are the failures, which occur independently and does not depend on failure of the others. 4) Secondary Failures: A secondary failure occurs as a result of some primary failure. 5) Failure due to improper handling and misuse: These are caused mainly due to certain factors like overloading, stressing beyond the capacity.
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Bath Tub Curve (Phases of Failures) Analysis of failure data has shown that failures in general can be grouped into different modes depending upon the nature of the failure. When a large number of units are put into operation, it is likely that there is a large number of failures initially. These failures are called Initial failures or Infant Mortality. After the initial failures, for a long period of time of operation fewer failures are reported but it is difficult to determine their causes. The failures during this period are often called random or catastrophic failures. This is a period of normal operation. As the time passes, the units get worn out due to wear and tear and begin to deteriorate. Here in this period, the failures are due to wear and tear and due to ageing. This region is called the wear out region. This curve is also called as Life Cycle Curve.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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Bath Tub Curve (Phases of Failures)

F A I L U R E R A T E

EARLY LIFE
(burn-in or break-in or infant mortality period)

USEFUL LIFE (or normal life)

WEAROUT LIFE

(failure rate decreases with time)

(failure rate approx. const)

(failure rate increases with time)

Time (hours, miles, cycles, etc)

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Bath Tub Curve (Phases of Failures) Early Failures These failures occur at the beginning due to the probability of defective design, manufacturing or assembly and quality control techniques during manufacturing. These are eliminated by debugging or burn in process. The weak and substandard products/components that fail during early hours of system operation are replaced by good or tested components. Debugging is a method of accelerating the completion of early failures by operating the system continuously for number of hours, correcting them and then releasing the system for actual use. Debugging is done generally prior to dispatch to the user to ensure the detection and elimination of early failures. Warranty is based on the concept of early failures.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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Bath Tub Curve (Phases of Failures) Catastrophic (Chance) Failures These failures are predominant during actual working of the system. They occur randomly and unexpectedly. The failure rate is fairly constant. These are caused due to sudden stress accumulation beyond the design strength of the material. This phase is called the useful life of the component. The failures at this stage can be minimised by introducing redundancy in the system. Wear Out Failures The item is more likely to fail due to wear and tear and the number of failures will be high. This is a typical ageing problem. Proper care and maintenance will reduce the failures at this stage.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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Measures of Reliability 1) Failure Rate Failure rate is expressed in terms of failures per unit time i.e. as failures per hour, or failures per 100 or 1000 hours. Failure rate is the ratio of number of failures (f) during a specified test interval to the total test time of items undergoing test. = f/T = Failure rate f = Number of failures during the test interval T= Total test time When the design is new, failure rate is high and when the design is matured, the failure rate is fairly constant. Smaller the value of failure rate, higher is the reliability of the system.

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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Measures of Reliability 2) Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) MTBF is referred to as the average time of satisfactory operation of the system. Larger the MTBF, higher is the reliability of the system. It is applicable to repairable systems and is expressed in hours, e.g. If an item fails 8 times over a period of 40,000 hours of operation, the MTBF would be 500 hours. During the operating period, the failure rate is fairly constant. MTBF is the reciprocal of the constant failure rate or the ratio of test time to number of failures. MTBF = 1/

Sunday, 07 April 2013

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Measures of Reliability 3) Mean Time To Failures (MTTF) This is applicable to non-repair systems. The mean time to failure is expressed as the average time an item is expected to function before failure. If we have the life test information on n items with failure times t1, t2,.tn, then the mean time to failure is defined as MTTF = 1/nti, where i= 1 to n

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System Reliability System A system is a collection of components, subsystem and/or assemblies arranged to a specific design order to achieve desired functions with acceptable performance and reliability. Models of a System Series Structure

For this system to work, both components 1 and 2 must work.

...

In this case, all n components must work in order for the whole system to work.
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System Reliability A Personal Computer

Power Supply

Motherboard

Processor 1 2

Hard Drive

A Simple Series system

Parallel Structures

1
. . .

2
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System Reliability In a parallel system, the system will work as long as at least one component works.

Combination of Series and Parallel Structures

3
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System Reliability Finding A Systems Reliability A) A Series System

...

For a pure series system, the system reliability is equal to the product of the reliabilities of its constituent components. Or:

Rs R1 R2 ... Rn

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System Reliability Finding A Systems Reliability B) A Parallel System

1
2
. . .

For a pure parallel system, the overall system reliability is equal to the product of the component unreliability's.
Thus, the reliability of the parallel system is given by:

Rs = 1 [(1 R1)(1-R2)(1-Rn)]

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System Reliability Finding A Systems Reliability C) Combination of Series and Parallel Structures

Example:
Consider a system with three components. Units 1 and 2 are connected in series and Unit 3 is connected in parallel with the first two, as shown in the figure below. Find the reliability of the system.

Solution:

R1 = 0.99 R3 = 0.97
Sunday, 07 April 2013

R2= 0.98

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System Reliability Finding A Systems Reliability First, the reliability of the segment consisting of Units 1 and 2 is calculated:

R1,2 = (R1)(R2) = (0.99)(0.98) = 0.97

The reliability of the overall system is then calculated by treating Units 1 and 2 as one with a reliability of 0.97 connected in parallel with Unit 3. R1,2= 0.97 Therefore:

Rs = 1 [(1 0.97)(1 0.97)] = 0.9991 = 99.91%

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R3 = 0.97
By- Himanshu Gupta

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Reliability Improvement A high degree of reliability is an absolute necessity for complex and modern systems to be used for industrial, military and other scientific purposes. There are many ways by which reliability of a component or system can be enhanced. These are: Design and Safety Factor: In order to design reliability into products, reasons for product failures must be analyzed thoroughly. Generally, a product fails prematurely because of inadequate design features, manufacturing and part

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