ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e
CHAPTER 3: Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work?
Core Case Study: Tropical Rainforests Are Disappearing (1)
Found near the equator 2% land surface ~50% worlds known terrestrial plant and animal species 50% destroyed or disturbed by humans
Cutting trees Growing crops Grazing cattle Building settlements
Core Case Study: Tropical Rainforests Are Disappearing (2)
Consequences of disappearing tropical rainforests
1. Decreased biodiversity as species become extinct 2. Accelerated global warming: fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere 3. Changes regional weather patterns: can lead to increase in tropical grasslands
Fig. 3-1, p. 39
3-1 What Keeps Us and Other Organisms Alive?
Concept 3-1A The four major components of the earths life-support system are the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and the biosphere (living things). Concept 3-1B Life is sustained by the flow of energy from the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within the biosphere, and gravity.
Earth Has Four Major LifeSupport Components
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere Biosphere
Fig. 3-2, p. 41
Vegetation and animals
Atmosphere
Biosphere Soil Rock Lithosphere Crust Mantle
Biosphere (living organisms) Core Atmosphere (air) Crust (soil and rock) Geosphere (crust, mantle, core) Hydrosphere (water)
Fig. 3-2, p. 41
Mantle
Three Factors Sustain Life on Earth
One-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun Cycling of matter or nutrients through parts of the biosphere Gravity
Solar Energy Reaching the Earth
Electromagnetic waves
Visible light UV radiation Heat
Natural greenhouse effect Energy in = energy out Human-enhanced global warming
Fig. 3-3, p. 41
Solar radiation
UV radiation
Reflected by atmosphere
Radiated by atmosphere as heat
Most absorbed by ozone
Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer) Visible light Troposphere Heat Absorbed by the earth Heat radiated by the earth Greenhouse effect
Fig. 3-3, p. 41
3-2 What Are the Major Components of an Ecosystem?
Concept 3-2 Some organisms produce the nutrients they need, others get the nutrients they need by consuming other organisms, and some recycle nutrients back to producers by decomposing the wastes and remains of organisms.
Ecology
How organisms interact with biotic and abiotic environment Focuses on specific levels of matter:
Organisms Populations Communities Ecosystems Biosphere
Fig. 3-4, p. 42
Biosphere Ecosystem
Parts of the earth's air,water, and soil where life is found A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place An individual living being
Community
Population
Organism
Cell Molecule
Water
The fundamental structural and functional unit of life
Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties
Fig. 3-4, p. 42
Atom
Hydrogen Oxygen
Biosphere Ecosystem
Parts of the earth's air,water, and soil where life is found A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place An individual living being
Community
Population
Organism
Cell Molecule Atom
The fundamental structural and functional unit of life
Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties Stepped Art
Fig. 3-4, p. 42
Living and Nonliving Components (1)
Abiotic
Water Air Nutrients Solar energy Rocks Heat
Living and Nonliving Components (2)
Biotic
Plants Animals Microbes Dead organisms Waste products of dead organisms
Fig. 3-5, p. 43
Precipitation
Oxygen (O2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Producer Secondary consumer (fox) Primary consumer (rabbit)
Producers
Water Decomposers Soluble mineral nutrients
Fig. 3-5, p. 43
Trophic Levels (1)
Producers autotrophs
Photosynthesis
Consumers heterotrophs
Primary - herbivores Secondary - carnivores Third-level
Omnivores
Trophic Levels (2)
Decomposers
Release nutrients from the dead bodies of plants and animals
Detrivores
Feed on the waste or dead bodies of organisms
Fig. 3-6, p. 44
Detritus feeders
Decomposers
Carpenter Termite and Bark beetle ant galleries carpenter engraving Dry rot ant work Long-horned fungus beetle holes Wood reduced Mushroom to powder
Time progression
Powder broken down by decomposers into plant nutrients in soil
Fig. 3-6, p. 44
Production and Consumption of Energy
Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy glucose + oxygen Aerobic respiration Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
Energy Flow and Nutrient Recycling
Ecosystems sustained through:
One-way energy flow from the sun Nutrient recycling
Fig. 3-7, p. 45
Heat
Abiotic chemicals (carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, minerals)
Solar energy
Heat
Heat
Decomposers (bacteria, fungi)
Producers (plants)
Heat
Consumers (herbivores, carnivores)
Heat
Fig. 3-7, p. 45
Science Focus: Invisible Organisms (1)
Microorganisms/Microbes
Bacteria Protozoa Fungi Phytoplankton
Science Focus: Invisible Organisms (2)
Microbes can cause disease
Malaria Athletes foot
Microbes are also beneficial
Intestinal flora Purify water Phytoplankton remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
3-3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem?
Concept 3-3 As energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and webs, the amount of chemical energy available to organisms at each succeeding feeding level decreases.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Trophic levels Food chain
Sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food for the next
Food web
Network of interconnected food chains More complex than a food chain
Fig. 3-8, p. 46
First Trophic Level Producers (plants) Heat Solar energy Heat
Second Trophic Level Primary consumers (herbivores) Heat
Third Trophic Level Secondary consumers (carnivores) Heat
Fourth Trophic Level Tertiary consumers (top carnivores)
Heat Heat Heat
Decomposers and detritus feeders
Fig. 3-8, p. 46
Fig. 3-9, p. 46
Humans
Blue whale
Sperm whale
Crabeater seal
Elephant seal
Killer whale
Adelie penguin
Leopard seal
Emperor penguin Squid Fish
Petrel
Carnivorous plankton
Krill
Herbivorous zooplankton Phytoplankton
Fig. 3-9, p. 46
Usable Energy by Trophic Level
Energy flow follows the second law of thermodynamics energy lost as heat Biomass decreases with increasing trophic level Ecological efficiency typically 10% Pyramid of energy flow
Fig. 3-10, p. 47
Usable energy available at each trophic level (in kilocalories)
Tertiary consumers (human) Secondary consumers (perch) Primary consumers (zooplankton) Producers (phytoplankton) 10
Heat
Heat
100 Heat
Decomposers
Heat
1,000 Heat 10,000
Fig. 3-10, p. 47
Tertiary consumers (human)
Usable energy available at each trophic level (in kilocalories) 10
Heat
Heat
Secondary consumers (perch) Primary consumers (zooplankton)
100 Heat
Decomposers
Heat
1,000 Heat 10,000
Producers (phytoplankton)
Stepped Art Fig. 3-10, p. 47
Two Kinds of Primary Productivity
Gross primary productivity (GPP) Net primary productivity (NPP) Planets NPP limits number of consumers Humans use, waste, or destroy 1055% of earths total potential NPP Human population is less than 1% of total biomass of earths consumers
Fig. 3-11, p. 48
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Swamps and marshes Tropical rain forest Temperate forest Northern coniferous forest (taiga) Savanna Agricultural land Woodland and shrubland Temperate grassland
Tundra (arctic and alpine) Desert scrub Extreme desert
Aquatic Ecosystems
Estuaries Lakes and streams Continental shelf Open ocean 800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 5,600 6,400 7,200 8,000 8,800 9,600 Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)
Fig. 3-11, p. 48
3-4 What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem?
Concept 3-4 Matter, in the form of nutrients, cycles within and among ecosystems and in the biosphere, and human activities are altering these chemical cycles.
Biogeochemical Cycles
Nutrient cycles Reservoirs Connect all organisms through time
Hydrologic Cycle
Water cycle is powered by the sun
1. Evaporation 2. Precipitation 3. Transpiration - evaporates from plant surfaces
Water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans 84% Over land, ~90% of water reaching the atmosphere comes from transpiration
Fig. 3-12, p. 49
Climate change
Condensation Ice and snow Transpiration from plants Evaporation from land Surface runoff Runoff Lakes and reservoirs Infiltration and percolation into aquifer Condensation
Precipitation to land
Evaporation from ocean Increased flooding from wetland destruction Precipitation to ocean
Reduced recharge of aquifers and flooding from covering land with crops and buildings
Point source pollution
Surface runoff Groundwater movement (slow) Processes Processes affected by humans Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Aquifer depletion from overpumping Ocean
Fig. 3-12, p. 49
Science Focus: Waters Unique Properties (1)
Holds water molecules together hydrogen bonding Liquid over a wide temperature range Changes temperature slowly Requires large amounts of energy to evaporate
Science Focus: Waters Unique Properties (2)
Dissolves a variety of compounds Filters out UV light from the sun Adheres to a solid surface allows capillary action in plants Expands as it freezes
Carbon Cycle
Based on carbon dioxide (CO2) CO2 makes up 0.038% of atmosphere volume Major cycle processes
Aerobic respiration Photosynthesis Fossil fuel combustion and deforestation
Fossil fuels add CO2 to the atmosphere and contribute to global warming
Fig. 3-13, p. 51
Carbon dioxide in atmosphere Respiration Photosynthesis Forest fires Diffusion Animals (consumers) Burning fossil fuels
Deforestation Transportation Respiration Plants (producers) Carbon in plants (producers)
Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean Marine food webs Producers, consumers, decomposers Carbon in limestone or dolomite sediments Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway
Carbon in animals (consumers) Decomposition Carbon in fossil fuels
Compaction
Fig. 3-13, p. 51
Nitrogen Cycle
Multicellular plants and animals cannot utilize atmospheric nitrogen (N2) Nitrogen fixation Nitrification Ammonification Denitrification
Fig. 3-14, p. 52
Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Electrical storms Nitrogen oxides from burning fuel Volcanic activity Denitrification by bacteria Nitrogen in animals (consumers) Nitrification by bacteria Nitrogen in plants (producers) Nitrogen in atmosphere
Nitrates from fertilizer runoff and decomposition
Decomposition
Uptake by plants
Nitrate in soil Nitrogen loss to deep ocean sediments Nitrogen in ocean sediments
Bacteria Ammonia in soil
Fig. 3-14, p. 52
Phosphorus Cycle
Does not cycle through the atmosphere Obtained from terrestrial rock formations Limiting factor on land and in freshwater ecosystems Biologically important for producers and consumers
Fig. 3-15, p. 53
Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Phosphates in sewage Phosphates in mining waste Phosphates in fertilizer Plate tectonics
Runoff
Runoff Sea birds
Runoff Erosion
Phosphate in rock (fossil bones, guano) Phosphate in shallow ocean sediments
Animals (consumers)
Ocean food chain
Phosphate dissolved in water
Plants (producers)
Phosphate in deep ocean sediments
Bacteria
Fig. 3-15, p. 53
Sulfur Cycle
Most sulfur stored in rocks and minerals Enters atmosphere through:
Volcanic eruptions and processes Anaerobic decomposition in swamps, bogs, and tidal flats Sea spray Dust storms Forest fires
Fig. 3-16, p. 54
Sulfur dioxide in atmosphere Sulfuric acid and Sulfate deposited as acid rain Smelting Dimethyl sulfide a bacteria byproduct Burning coal Refining fossil fuels Sulfur in animals (consumers)
Sulfur in ocean sediments
Mining and extraction Decay
Sulfur in plants (producers) Decay Uptake by plants
Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway
Sulfur in soil, rock and fossil fuels
Fig. 3-16, p. 54
3-5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems?
Concept 3-5 Scientists use field research, laboratory research, and mathematical and other models to learn about ecosystems.
Field Research
Collecting data in the field by scientists Remote sensing devices Geographic information systems (GIS)
Laboratory Research
Simplified model ecosystems
Culture tubes Bottles Aquariums Greenhouses Chambers with controllable abiotic factors
How well do lab experiments correspond with the greater complexity of real ecosystems?
Scientific Studies of Ecosystems
Models
Mathematical Computer simulations
Models need to be fed real data collected in the field- baseline data Models must determine relationships among key variables
Baseline Data to Measure Earths Health
Needed to measure changes over time Lacking for many ecosystems Call for massive program to develop baseline data
Animation: Levels of organization
Animation: Linked Processes
Animation: Feedback Control of Temperature
Animation: Diet of a Red Fox
Animation: Prairie Trophic Levels
Animation: Rainforest Food Web
Animation: Energy Flow in Silver Springs
Animation: Biomes Map
Animation: Prairie Food Web
Animation: Gauses Competition Experiment
Animation: Visible Light
Animation: Energy Flow
Animation: Roles of Organisms in an Ecosystem
Animation: Matter Recycling and Energy Flow
Animation: Current and Projected Population Sizes by Region
Animation: Demographic Transition Model
Animation: Soil Profile
Animation: Species Diversity By Latitude
Animation: Area and Distance Effects
Animation: Linked Processes
Animation: Categories of Food Webs
Animation: Hydrologic Cycle
Animation: Carbon Cycle
Animation: Nitrogen Cycle
Animation: Phosphorous Cycle
Animation: Sulfur Cycle
Animation: Capture-Recapture Method
Video: Owl with Mouse
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