EE 404
SWITCHGEAR & PROTECTION. OF PWR. SYS. Lectures Book
D. Raveendhra Assistant Professor
Graphic Era University
Electrical and Computer Department
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Function Of Industrial Switchgear
Foreword
Purpose And Types
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Switchgear & Protection
Lecture 2 System and substation layout: System layout:
I- radial feeder. II- parallel feeder. III- ring system. Iv- combination of the past three kinds.
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Substation layout
Substation layout:
Substations usually different in size, construction, cost and complexity according to voltage, location and function.
The common feature they have is marshalling of all the associated circuits, through CB, switches on to bus bar as shown Fig (1-2-2A). (From Protection Relaying by Blackburn Page 338) 1-Single bus single breaker Fig (10.1) 2-Double bus with bus tie single breaker Fig (10.2) 3-Main & transfer bus single breaker Fig (10.3) 4-Double bus single breaker Fig (10.4) 5-Double bus Double breaker Fig (10.5) 6-Ring bus Fig (10.6) 7-Breaker and a half bus Fig (10.7) 8-Bus and transformer single breaker Fig (10.8)
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Function of Substation
Introduction:
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Functions of Substation
Voltage Transformer function 1 Circuit Switching function 2
Voltage Regulation function 3
VAR Control function 4 System Protection function 5
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Design Considerations
Safety Simplicity
Reliability
Maintenance Flexibility
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Radial Systems
Introduction Simple Radial Systems
Expanded Radial Systems
Single-Ended Unit Substations
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Radial Systems
Simple And Expanded Radial Systems
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Radial Systems
Single-Ended Unit Substations
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Loop Systems
Primary Loop Systems
Secondary Loop Systems
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Loop Systems
Primary Loop Systems
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Selective Systems :-
Primary selective system
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Secondary Selective System :-
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Combined Selective Systems :-
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Combined Selective Systems :-
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Double Ended Unit Substations :-
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One-Line Diagrams:Introduction
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Chapter 3 (protection of industrial power system) Lecture 3 Chapter 3 (protection of industrial power system) Current and voltage Transformers:Current Transformer:
It is a device produces a primary current at a reduced level . A current transformer (CT) designed for measuring purposes operates over a range of current up to a specific rated value (circuit normal rating ) and it has a specified errors at that value . On the other hand a protection CT is required to operate over a range of current many times the circuit rating . Under such condition, the flax density corresponds to advanced saturation and the response during this and the initial transient period of short circuit current is important . Thus the method specifying measuring CT is not necessarily satisfactory for those for protection , and a deep detail of knowledge of CT operation is required to predict the performance of the protection
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CT's have two important qualities:
1-CTs reduce primary current to a value which can be carried by a small cross sectional area cable to suit protection and measuring circuit. 2-They provide insulation berried for protection used for the high voltage equipment.
Construction:
Fig. 3.1 Construction of a current transformer
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Design:
* CTs based on the normal transformer e.m.f equation where the average induced voltage is equal to the product of the number of turns and the rate of change of magnetic flux ()=F/R. The normal design citation is to limit the flux to the value where saturation commencer (known as the knee point flux) and therefore it is the maximum value of the magnetizing current which produces this flux. *Magnetizing current charges from zero to maximum in 1/4 cycle and therefore the rate of change of flux is 42 {(-0)/(1/4)}=4 web/cycle
* Or at a frequency of cycle/sec
Flux=4 f web/sec But Li=N =Var
* Thus the induced voltage
Var= 4 fN
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where
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At knee point voltage
Vr.m.s = 1.11 Var Vr.m.s= 1.11*4 f N = 4.44 f N
* In terms of flux density
Vr.m.s = 4.44 f N B*A
Example:
The flux density of electrical sheet steel is about 1.5 tesla (web/m^2) at knee-point of CT ratio 300/1 with core area of 40*30mm^2. Determine the knee point flux.
Solution:
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B= /A or =B*A = 1.5*40*30*10^-6=.0018 web on f=50Hz The knee point voltage=4.44*0.0018*300*50=120v [Link] IITR
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Short time factor
Short time factor :
CTs which are used in power system are subjected to fault currents many times their rated current, and therefore, they must be able to withstand the effect of this current for short time. The maximum current which it can carry without mechanical and thermal damage is expressed as multiple of its rated short time factor.
Burden :
The load of current transformer is called the burden and can be expressed either as a VA load or as impedance.
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Burden
For example : A 5 VA burden on a 1A current transformer would have an impedance :
Or on a 5A CT
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A ring type CT as shown in fig ( 3.2 ) is of secondary winding resistance (RL) , magnetizing current (Ie) and resistance (Rb) and reactance ( Xb) burden . The primary turns must be equal the secondary and magnetizing Ampere- turns, so, N1 I1 = N2 ( I2 + Ie) In practice Ie very small compared with I2 and is ignored in all CT calculation with the except of those concerned with ratio and phase angle error. By ohm law V2 = I2 (R2 + Rb + jxb)
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The ratio error
The ratio error :
which is the difference in magnitude of I1 & I2, and
which the phase angle error are apparent as shown in Fig 3.3. Magnetizing characteristic for 100/1 A CT is shown in Fig 3.4 and it is measured before that Ie is small compared to I2 up to and beyond the knee-point of the characteristic.
Hence the ratio and phase angle errors will also be small.
Fig. 3.4 CT magnetizing characteristic
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The ratio error
This means that the primary / secondary current relationship will be maintained to this point. These If I2 (R2 + Rb + jXb) = 120 V = V knee And if R2 = 1 Rb + jXb = 7.5 + j0
Then linearity would be maintained up to a secondary current of I2 = 120 / 8.5 = 14.1 A *
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CT rating
CT rating :
Alternatively, if linearity is required up to 20 * CT rating, then the total impedance should not exceed R2 + Rb + jXb = 120 / (20 * 1) =6 For example: CT of ratio 200/5, which is capable of withstanding 13000A would have a short time factor of 65 such factor would be associated with a period of duration of the current ( 3 seconds ). Smaller current would be permissible for long time.
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Accuracy Limit Factor
* CT used for protection should maintain its characteristic ratio up to some multiple of its rated current. This multiple could be 10, 20, or higher and it is known as (Accuracy Limit Factor).
In case of measuring CTs, the small ratio error is often compensated
by modifying the ratio of the primary to secondary turns from the nominal ratio. For example a 100/1A CT might have one primary turn and 98 secondary turns, so the transformation ratio would be 100 to
* But it is used to supply protective relay, more burden is applied and therefore the secondary current is reduced to 1 Amp by the magnetizing losses.
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Specification of CTs:
CTs are defined in terms of rated burden, accuracy class and accuracy limit.
Saturated values of rated burden are: 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15 & 30 VA
Saturated accuracy limit factors are: 5,10,15, 20 & 30 Two accuracy classes (5% & 10 %) are quoted 5P & 10P which give a composite error at rated accuracy limit. The method of describing at CT is as following. 15 VA class 5P20 It means the burden is 15 and will not have more than 5% error at 20 times its rated current. * Design requirements of CT are specified in terms of knee point voltage, magnetizing current at knee point and secondary resistance. There are known in general as "class x" CTs. [Link] IITR
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Application:
In specifying CT's, the variation of impedance over the range of setting any relays should be taken into consideration .
Example: The normal burden of an over current relay is VA at setting, where the normal setting range of the relay is 50% to 200% of nominal current. There for a 1 A relay set to 50% would have:
Current setting = 50*1 = 0.5 A Voltage across the coil = = 6V Relay impedance = = 12 At 200 % Current setting = 200*1 = 2 A Voltage across the coil = = 1.5V Relay impedance = = 0.75 If the characteristic of the relay should be maintained up to 20 times the relay setting, then the Vkp not less than 20 * 6 V=120 V for a 50% setting Or 20 * 1.5V= 30 V for a 200% setting.
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However, the relay operating at 20 times its setting will have saturated magnetically and therefore the impedance will be reduced. Hence, in the case of the lowest setting core must be taken when specifying.
The impedance at setting, which means that Vkp = 60 would be satisfactory because the relay would have saturated before times. For an earth fault relay having minimum setting of 20% would have voltage at setting of:
3VA 15V 0.2 A
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Voltage transformers VTs One requirement should be used with protection, which is that the secondary voltage must be accurate representation of the primary voltage in both magnitude and phase. To meet this requirement, they are designed to operate at low flux densities so that Ie , ration and phase angle errors are small. This larger than that of power transformer, which increase the overall size of the unit. The nominal secondary voltage is sometimes 110V (line voltage).
Accuracy
VTs usually have range of voltage from 80% to 120 % and range of burden from 25 % to 100 %. In protection when voltage suppressed, accuracy measurement may be important during fault condition.
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Protection: The primary side of VTs are usually protected by HRC fuses and fuses or miniature circuit breaker on the secondary side
Residual Connection:
During earth fault of any one of the three phases, it is not possible to derive a voltage in the conventional manner. Therefore, the residual (broken delta) connection as shown in figure (3.5) must be used. Under the three-phase balanced conditions the three voltage sum to zero. If one voltage is absent during fault condition, then the difference in voltages between the phases will be delivered to the relay
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Fig. 3.5 Broken delta connection of a voltage transformer 10/6/2012
Capacitor VTs:
The cost of the electromagnetic VTs at voltages of 132 kV or more is very high. Thus, the capacitor VTs is proposed to be the more economical equipment. It is virtually a capacitance voltage divide with a tuning inductance and an auxiliary transformer as shown in figure (3.6).
Fig. 3.6 Capacitor voltage Transformer transformer
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Power system protection: Text protective Relay by [Link] Blackburn.
General philosophies :
What is a relay? (IEEE) define a relay as an electric device that is designed to interpret input condition in a prescribed manner and after specified condition are met to respond to cause contact operation .Relay are utilized in all as pacts of activity, the home ,communication , industry..etc. A protective relay is defined as a relay whose function is to detect defective line or apparatus or other power system condition of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate appropriate control circuit condition. Fuse are also used in protection and define as an over current protective device with in a circuit opening fusible part that is heated and severed by the passage of the over current thought it.
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A primary objective of all power system is to maintain a very high level of condition of service, and to minimize the outage times when intolerable conditions occur. Loss of power, dip of voltage and over voltage will occur due to consequences of natural events, physical accident, equipment failure a disoperation by human error.
Protection is the science, skill, and art of applying and setting and / or fuses to provide maximum sensitivity to fault and undesirable condition.
Typical power circuit breaker:
Protective relays provide the "brains" to same trouble ,but as low energy device they are able to open and isolate the problem area of the power system . CBs and varions types of circuit interrupters are used to provide the "muscle" for fault isolation . Thus protective relays and interrupting devices are "team" . protective relays without CBs have no basic value except for alarm. On the other hand , CBs without protective relays are only energized or de energized manually. Different type of voltages of typical CBs are shown in fig (1-7 &1-8).
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Typical relay & CB connection :
Usually protective relays are connected to power system through CT and/or VT. The circuit can be represented by a typical "one-line'" ac schematic and dc trip circuit schematic as shown in fig (1-9) . in normal operation and when CB(52) is closed , it is contact closes to energize the CB trip coil 52T, which function to open breaker main contact and de energize the connected circuit. The relay contacts are not designed to interrupt the CB trip coil current so an auxiliary relay is used to "seal in" or by pass the protective relay. Then 52a will open to de energize the breaker coil.
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Fig-1.9 Typical single line ac connection of a protective relay with its de trip schematic [Link] IITR 10/6/2012
Basic objectives of system protection :
Protection does not mean prevention, but minimizing the duration of the trouble, the five basic objectives are: i) Reliability: assurance that the protection will perform correctly. ii) Selectivity: maximum continuity of service with minimum system disconnection. iii) Speed of operation: minimum fault duration and consequent equipment damage.
iv) Simplicity: minimum protective equipment and associated circuitry to achieve the protection objectives.
v) Economics: maximum protection at minimum total cost.
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Classification of Relays: Classification can be done by different ways, such as by function, input, performance characteristics an operating be divided into five types: i) Protective Relays: Protective relays and fuses operate on the intolerable power system conditions. They are applied to all parts of the power system; generates, buses, TFs, TLs, distribution lines and feeds, motors, loads, capacitors banks and reactors. Fuses are usually used for low voltage level (480 V). ii) Regulating Relays: Regulating relays are associated with tap changer of TFs, on governor of generating equipment to control the voltages level with varying load (used during normal conditions).
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iii)Reclosing, synchronism check, synchronizing relays: Relays of this type are used in energizing or restoring lines to service after an outage and in interconnecting pre-energizing parts of the systems. iv) Monitoring Relays: Relays of this type are used in energizing or restoring lines to service after an outage and in interconnecting pre-energizing parts of the systems.
Ivv) Auxiliary Relay:
There are two categories: contact multiplication (repeat contactors) and circuit isolation.
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Other relay classification: Protective relays classified by input are known as current, voltage, power, frequency and temperature relays. Those classified by operating principles are electromechanical, solid state etc. those classified by performance are distance, reactance, over current .etc.
Induction Relays Torque id produced by applying two alternating fields to a moveable disk, which are displaced in space and time.
I
I b
I a
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The applied torque would accelerate the disc to a speed limited only by friction and windage control can be done by two ways: 1- By permanent magnet whose field passes through the disk and produces a breaking force , which control the time characteristic of the relay . 2- By control spring which produces a torque proportional to disc angular disc placement.
Which is an inverse time characteristic
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Over current protection:
The standard relay characteristic: t = 3*(log M)-1 = (3)/(log M) where, M: multiple of setting. At twice setting current, operation time = 10 sec. And at 10 * the setting current, operation time = 3 sec. As shown in fig. (5.1).
Fig.5.1: Characteristic Curve. Inverse-Minimum Time Relay
The seven plug bridge positions would be marked:
1 50% 2 75% 3 100% 4 125% 5 150% 6 175% 7 200%
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Grading Principles (GEC text):
Relay coordination can be achieved either by time or over current or a combination of both time and over current in order to chive correct discrimination . i Discrimination by time :
This method uses time intervals to give the relay nearest to the fault to operate first. Figure (9.1) Shows that the radial feeders have CBs at the in feed end of each section, where each protection comprises a definite time delay over current relay in which the operation of current sensitive element initiates the time delay element.
Figure (9.1)
Discrimination by current : Fault currents varies with the fault positions due to the difference in impedances relays are set at a tapered values such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its CB, Fig (9.2).
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iii- Discrimination by Both Time and Current:Because of the limitation imposed by two previous methods, a time / current characteristic has evolved . The following example illustrates this method of coordination clearly . Graphs:
Fig.5.3: Time/Current Curves. IDMT Relay
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Fig.1.1: Distance protection, (a) Schematic. (b) Time/Distance graph.
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Fig.1.2: Distance Relay Circuit (Moving Coil Relay)
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Differential protection : (protective relaying by Blackburn) Differential principle is applicable to all part of the power system: generation, motor, buses, transformer, line capacitor, reactor and some times combination of these. During normal condition or external fault the sum of the current flowing into the relays circuit is almost zero .However in internal fault condition the net current into the relay circuit is not zero. For example IP is the primary current is shown in fig (6.1) To reduce this voltage a non linear resistor should be imposed, this resistor increase the absorbance of current 32 times, if the voltage is doubled, eg. Voltage across relay current in non-linear resistor 120 0.01 240 0.32 480 10.24 600 30
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Relay Types ( GEC textbook ) Plain Impedance Relay ( non-unit ) The relay impedance characteristic is a circle when it plotted on R-X diagram with its center at the origin, became the relay does not take into account the phase angle between voltage and current applied to it Fig(11.5) it is a non directional so that it can operate for all faults a long the vector GL & GM . it has three main disadvantages It is non directional and it requires a directional element It is affected by arc resistance It is highly affected by power swings because of the large area covered by the impedance circle Mho Relay: The characteristic of this relay is a circle, whose circumference passes through the origin, when it is plotted on R/X diagram fig (11.10.b) showing the relay is inherently directional and will operate only for a fault in the forward direction. The relay is adjusted be setting Zreach (Zn) and , the angle of displacement of the diameter from Raxis. Angle is known as relay characteristic angle (RCA). The relay operate for Zf within the circle. The mho relay characteristic can be obtained by using a phase comparator circuit which compares input signals S2 and S1 and operates whenever S2 lags S1 by between 90 and 270 [ ( s1 s2 ) between 90 and 270 ] The two input signals are: S2 = V I * Zn S1 = V Where: V = fault voltage from VT secondary winding. I = fault current from CT secondary winding. [Link] = impedance setting of distance relay. IITR 10/6/2012 77 n
REACTANCE RELAY :
Reactance relay measures only the line reactance and does not vary with the presence of arc resistance. Fig (11-12) shows that any increase in arc resistance will not change the value of the reactance. reach as the relay continue to measure the value of reactance X.
Distance Protection ( Electrical Power System ) : The basic idea of using distance protection , is to eliminate the pilot . Since the pilot can be used up to 30 km in route length . for a feeder shown in Fig (101) , the line (A-B) is to be protected by Distance relay , which located at bus (A) . Distance relay compares system voltage to system current presented to it to find out the voltage as the VT primary side :
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example
A distance relay , which located at A ( fig below) , protects line AB and BC . the minimum source MVA (3- fault level ) at A is 1500 MVA reglect R . The relay characteristic angle 60 . calculated the setting of the relay to give a reach of 80% at stage 1 of AB .
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Solution :
Maximum Xs = ((132)/(3)^(1/3)) / (1500/((3)^(1/3)*132))=132^2/1500 = j 11.62 ohm / ph (primary) Reach of stage 1 = 0.8 * 0.435 * 96.5 = 33.6L70 ohm / ph (primary) = 11.48+j31.6 ohm / ph Total fault impedance = 11.48+j31.6+j11.26 = 44.6L71.8 ohm ohm/ph Minimum fault current = (132/(3)^(1/3))/44.6 = 1710 A (primary) = 1710*0/600 = 2.8 A(sec) Line voltage at relaying point = ((3)^(1/3)) * 1710 * 33.6 = 99516 V = 99516 * (110/132000)=82.9 v (sec) Reach of compensated impedance= ((32.9) / (((3)^(1/3))*2.85) = 16.8 ohm/ph (scenery) OR Reach of compensated impedance 33.6 * CT ratio/VT ratio = 16.8ohm/ph Relay Setting = relay reach / cost(70-60) = 17ohm/phase (Typical relay setting range from 320 ohm)
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Figure 11.8 Plain impedance relay characteristic
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Phase sequence
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Electrical power system by guile and pates
Quadrilateral Relay:
Quadrilateral relay combines the advantage of reactance with directional relay and resistive reach control. Characteristic It is applied for earth fault protection of short and medium lines where high fault resistance tolerance is required. Fig(11.13)
Transformer Protection Scheme:
Transformer are costly units. Thus, protection is essential to prevent damages might be caused due to internal or external faults. The types of protective [Link] IITR 10/6/2012 92 relays are summarized below.
Differential Protection:
This type of protection is only applied to large transformers.
Buchholz Protection:
The Buchholz relay is the best device available for detecting incipient (primary) faults and is specially sensitive to interterm faults. This relay will operate for one of the reason: 1 The introduction of air during filling or because of mechanical failure of the oil system. 2 Gas produced by the breakdown of the oil. 3 Gas produced by the breakdown of the solid insulation. The gases produced are mainly hydrogen and carbon monoxide. If the quantity is greater than 1% then sort of action must be taken. The analysis of the gases may be as follow;
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Directional over-current relay
This type of over-current is usually mounted at the secondary side of the transformer
Highest instantaneous relay
It comes with IDMT over-current relay and they mounted at the primary side of the transformer. This relay detects and operates for the primary faults only since the relay setting is above the maximum of secondary fault level.
Restricted earth fault relay
Usually in transformers, earth fault current is limited by the inclusion of an earthing resistor. The effective operation level of a restricted earth fault relay is normally less than 25% of the resistor rating.
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Standby earth fault relay:
This relay has a long time delay and it regarded as a last line of defense and intend to trip only in the event of a sustained earth fault condition.
Overload protection:
This type of protection is used for large transformers fitted with oil and winding temperature indicators
1- If the gas is mainly hydrogen with less than 2 % carbon monoxide then the fault is likely involve only the insulation oil.
2- If the gas is hydrogen with about 20 % carbon monoxide then the fault is concerned with both solid insulation and insulating oil
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Balanced Earth Fault Relay:For secondary earth fault on secondary side the current on delta side is equal and opposite in two phases and therefore the output to the relay will be zero. Thus, the relay will operate only for single earth fault on the delta side.
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Generator Protection Scheme
Generator protection requires immediate disconnection due to insulation failures. Other faults may be allowed for some time due to unsatis factory operating conditions.
Insulation Failure:
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Stator Protection:
High impedance differential relay is usual for stator protection and is applied on phase by phase basis
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Earth Fault Protection :
Earth fault protection by an over current relay is essential to compliment the differential protection scheme and to provide a backup protection for the differential relay. When the generator is directly connected to the power system i.e- without generator transformer, it provides a back-up protection for the bus bars and the whole system. In this case it should have a very long time delay and should be thought of as the last line of defense.
Rotor Earth Fault Protection :
Earth fault an the rotor will not cause any current to flow to earth and does not , therefore , constitute a dangerous condition . It a second fault happened , a portion of the field winding will be short circuited and resulting in an unbalanced magnetic pull on the rotor. Thus , earth fault protection is essential.
Unsatisfactory Operation Condition :
The conditions in general does not require immediate disconnection .
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Unbalanced loading :
Unbalanced loading of the generator phases results in the production of negative phase sequence ( NPS ) currents. These currents will have a phase rotation in the opposite direction to the normal phase rotation, produces a magnetic field which induces currents in the rotor at twice the system frequency. Time will result in considerable heating in the rotor and would cause damage if allowed to persist.
Overload:
Overload protection can be achieved by embedded a thermometer in the stator winding. Overload relay operates over hundreds to thousands range where an over current relay operates in the one-ten second range.
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Failure of prime mover:
In the failure of prime mover, the generator continues to run, but as a synchronous motor and this can cause dangerous condition in the prime mover. To prevent this, a reverse power relay should be applied.
Loss of Field:
Failure of the field system results in acceleration of the rotor to above synchronous speed where it continue to generate power as an induction generator. This condition can be protected by undercurrent relay.
Over speed:
The rotor speed is controlled by the governor and steam valve. A sensitive under power relay is used to detect when rotor is over speed.
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Overvoltage:
Voltage is generally controlled by a high-speed voltage regulator. An instantaneous relay set to 150% is used to cater for defective operation of voltage regulator.
Protection of Generator/Transformer units:
This can be achieved biased differential protection.
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