Temperature

Module 3​
 Daily mean
Air- • Average of hourly readings in a day

Temperature Daily temperature range

Data
• Temperature is one of the basic
• Difference between daily highs and lows

elements of weather and Monthly mean

climate
• Average of daily mean
• Varies on different time scales:
seasonally, daily, and hourly Annual mean
• Average of the 12 monthly means
• Mean temperatures are useful
for making daily, monthly, and Annual temperature range
annual comparisons
• Difference between highest and lowest monthly mean
Maximum and Minimum Temperature Records

• Highest temperature record for the United States and the entire world
—is 134°F
• Death Valley, California, on July 10, 1913

• Coldest temperature recorded in the contiguous U.S. is -70°F

• Rogers Pass, Montana, on January 20, 1954
Air-Temperature Data 1
Isotherms
• Isotherms illustrate the distribution of air temperatures over large
areas
• Isotherms: Line connecting places with equal temperature
• iso = equal, therm = temperature
• Generally, isotherms representing temperature differences of 5° or
10° are used, but any interval can be chosen
• Temperature distribution clearly visible and make areas of low and
high temperatures easy to identify
Air-Temperature Data 2

Temperature gradient: amount of

temperature change per unit of
distance

• Closely spaced isotherms indicate

a rapid rate of temperature
change

• More widely spaced lines

indicate a more gradual rate of
change
 Cycles of Air Temperature
• Daily temperature cycle
• Minimum temperature occurs just before
sunrise.
• Maximum temperature occurs mid to late
afternoon.
• Primary control of the daily cycle of air
temperature is Earth’s daily rotation.
• Annual temperature cycle
• Meteogram: graph that shows how meteorological
variables change over time.
 Cycles of Air Temperature 1
• A. Daily variation of incoming solar
energy versus outgoing Earth radiation
and the resulting temperature curve
• Typical middle-latitude location at the time
of an equinox
• B. Time of highest temperature does not
generally coincide with the time of
maximum solar heating
• As long as solar energy gained exceeds
outgoing energy emitted by Earth, the
temperature rises
Annual temperature cycle
• Seasonal temperature cycle becomes more pronounced the farther
you get from the equator.
• Highest and lowest mean temperatures do not coincide with the
periods of maximum and minimum incoming solar radiation.
• In the United States, the annual temperature cycle lags behind the
period of the most intense solar heating by an average of 27 days.
 Why Temperatures Vary
• Temperature control: any
factor that causes
temperatures to vary
• Primary control of
temperature is latitude
• Latitude determines the
annual variations in Sun
angle and length of
daylight, which causes
warmer temperatures in
the tropics and colder
temperatures at the poles
 Why Temperatures Vary 1

• Latitude is not the only control of

temperature. If it were, we would
expect all places along the same line
of latitude to have identical
temperatures
Controls of temperature
Differential
heating of land Ocean currents Elevation
and water

Geographic Cloud cover and

positioning albedo
 Differential of Land and Water
• Land heats more rapidly and to higher temperatures than water
and, conversely, cools more rapidly and to lower temperatures
than water.

So, why do land and water heat and cool differently?

1. Water is fluid.
• Temperatures rise and fall slower in water than on land.
• As water is heated, convective flow distributes the heat through a
considerably larger mass.
2. Land is opaque (i.e. not see through).
• Heat is absorbed only on the surface. I.e. Conduction
• No mixing can occur on land because it is not fluid
 These factors cause water to
3. Specific heat is three times greater for water than for land.
warm more slowly, store greater
• Specific heat: the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 quantities of heat, and cool more
gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius (°C). slowly than land.
4. Evaporation (cooling process) is greater over water.
 Elevation
• Temperatures on average decrease
with an increase in altitude in the
troposphere.
• The atmosphere is thinner at
higher elevations.
• Higher elevations produce a
greater daily temperature range.
 Elevation 1
• As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure
and density also decrease
• Air is thinner at high altitudes
• Atmosphere absorbs, reflects, and scatters a
smaller portion of the incoming solar radiation
• Increase in altitude = increase in intensity of
solar radiation
• Rapid daytime heating and nighttime cooling
 Ocean Currents

The atmospheric circulation that produces the ocean currents is driven by the unequal heating of Earth by the Sun.
 Ocean Currents 1
• Surface currents are driven by
the wind.
• At the water surface, energy is
passed from moving air to the
water through friction.
• Drag exerted by winds blowing
steadily across the ocean causes
the surface layer of water to The transfer of heat by winds and ocean currents is
move. nature’s attempt to equalize the latitudinal energy
• Creates major horizontal imbalance between the tropics and the poles.
movements of surface waters
 Ocean Currents 2
• Gulf Stream: an important
surface current in the Atlantic
Ocean
• Flows northward along the East
Coast of the United State
 Geographic Position
• The effects of differential heating of land and water
can be blown inland by the prevailing wind at a
particular location.
• Prevailing winds: winds that blow from a single
direction over a specific area of the Earth
• The prevailing winds in the midlatitudes flow from
west to east and are called the westerlies.
• Prevailing winds can also affect temperatures if the
winds blow across a mountain range, where the
mountains create a barrier from the moderating
effects of the ocean.
Geographic Position 1
 Geographic Position 2
• Mountains act as barriers to airflow, and
influence temperatures in other ways.
• The windward (upslope) side of a mountain
tends to be cooler
• The leeward (downslope) side tends to be
warmer
 • Albedo: the fraction of radiation
Albedo reflected by an object
• A high albedo reduces surface
temperature
• because solar radiation reflected to space
and does not play a role in heating Earth’s
surface and atmosphere
• Snow- and ice-covered surfaces have
high albedos
• The albedo of clouds depends on the
thickness of the cloud cover and can
vary from 25% to 90%
Cloud cover – cloud feedback
• Cloud cover reduces the amount of
incoming solar radiation, daytime
temperatures are lower than if the sky
were clear
Higher albedo
• At night: clouds absorb outgoing Earth
radiation and emit a portion of it back
toward the surface

Lower albedo
Land cover – Land use
Temperature at a location can be influenced by the type of surface,
like plants or concrete.

Areas with lots of plants (vegetation) are cooler in summer because

plants provide shade and release moisture, which cools the air.

Areas with little vegetation, like deserts, are hotter.

Cities can be much warmer than nearby rural areas because they
have more buildings and roads, which trap heat.

Concrete and asphalt contribute to the urban heat

island effect.
This effect is called the "urban heat island."
 Urban heat island effect

- Part of the temperature increase in cities is

due to waste heat from:
- Home heating and air conditioning
- Power plants
- Factories and other industries
- Vehicles
- Pollution over cities acts like a "blanket,"
trapping heat:
- Pollutants absorb heat emitted by the ground.
- Some of this heat is then re-emitted back to
the surface, adding to the warmth.
Atmospheric
Circulation
• Atmospheric circulation patterns
move warm and cold air across
regions, affecting temperatures.
• These large-scale circulation
patterns are linked to weather
systems that:
• Bring cloud cover and
precipitation.
• Reduce incoming solar radiation,
leading to cooler temperatures.
Global Distribution of Temperature
Global Annual Temperature Ranges

• The global distribution of temperatures is

primarily determined by latitude and, to a
lesser extent, by the distribution of land and
water
• Annual ranges are small near the equator and
increase toward the poles. Outside the tropics,
annual temperature ranges increase as we
move away from the ocean and toward the
interior of large landmasses.
 Temperature Measurement
• Thermometer: an instrument that measures temperature—either
mechanically or electrically
• Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled,
and many common thermometers operate using this property

• Mechanical thermometers
• Liquid-in-glass
• Maximum thermometer—mercury
• Minimum thermometer—alcohol
• Thermograph—bimetal strip
• Electrical thermometers
• Thermistor—electrically resistant at different temperatures
Temperature
Measurement 1
• Mechanical thermometers: rely on substances
expanding when heated and contracting when cooled.
• Liquid-in-glass
• Maximum thermometer—mercury (high density)
• Minimum thermometer—alcohol (low density)
• Thermograph—bimetal strip
 Temperature Measurement
• An instrument shelter shields instruments from
direct sunshine, heat from nearby objects, and
precipitation
• White box (for high albedo)
• Louvered sides (for ventilation)
• Over grass
• 5 feet above ground

 Cotton Region Shelter

 Temperature Measurement 3
• Electrical thermometers
• Thermistor—electrically resistant at different temperatures (Resistor)
• Thermistors are rapid-response instruments that quickly measure
temperature changes.
• To accurately measure air temperature, a thermometer must be placed in the
shade and mounted at 1.5 meters (5 feet) above the ground
• At least 100 feet from any paved or concrete surface
• Thermometers should be freely ventilated by air flow

Maximum Minimum Temperature System (MMTS) 

Temperature Scales

• Fahrenheit: defined by two fixed points, the

temperature at which ice melts 32°F and the boiling
point of water 212°F

• Celsius: a decimal scale on which the melting point

of ice was set at 0°C and the boiling point of water at
100°C.
• A Celsius degree (°C) is larger than a Fahrenheit degree
(°F) by a factor of 180/100, or 1.8

• Kelvin: Similar to Celsius scale, the melting point is

set at 273 K, and the boiling point is at 373 K
• Absolute value, no negatives
• Absolute zero: zero point represents the temperature at
which all molecular motion is presumed to stop.
• No temperature lower than absolute zero
 Temperature Scales 1

• Fixed points
• Ice point
• Ice melts
• Steam point
• Water boils

Fun fact: The United States and Belize are the only 2 countries
that continue to use the Fahrenheit scale
Temperature Scales – Conversion
 Applying Temperature Data
• Why are hot, humid days so uncomfortable?
• Apparent temperature is the temperature a person perceives.
• Heat stress is caused by high temperature and high humidity.
• Sweat does not evaporate from body.
• Feels hotter.
• Heat stress index.
 Applying Temperature Data
• The heat (stress) index is the perceived
increase in temperature felt by the body as a
result of humidity.
• Combines temperature and humidity to
establish the degree of comfort or
discomfort.

• As relative humidity increases, apparent

temperature increases as well.
• Example, if the air temperature is 80°F
and the relative humidity is 90 percent,
it would “feel like” 86°F.
 Applying Temperature Data 2
• Windchill is the perceived decrease in air temperature felt by
the body due to the flow of air.
• Windchill temperature index - how the wind and cold feel on
human skin
• Evaporates moisture
• Cools body
• Feels colder
• Wind chill chart