CEE 367
D. Cantor
Module 1
Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
• Describe the main differences between soil and other civil
Chapters 1 and
engineering materials.
• Understand the role of geotechnical engineers in civil projects.
• Describe the different origins of soil.
3
• Identify the main tools geotechnical engineers have to
understand/describe subsoil conditions.
What do geotechnical engineers do?
Burj Khalifa, Dubai
• Tallest building in the world (2700
ft).
• 57 elevators.
For this project, geotechnical engineers:
• Planned and performed subsoil exploration.
• Identified subsoil properties and
groundwater level.
• Conceived and designed excavations
• Design and supervise the construction of
(unique) foundations.
This type of foundation is
called a “raft on drilled
shafts.”
A raft (or mat) is a large
continuous slab of
concrete.
198 piles, ~160 ft long,
were installed.
Groundwater is salted – It can potentially corrode rebar in concrete
Solution? An electrified mesh attracts electrons, preventing oxidation in
the shafts.
Panama Canal Locks
Expansion• Locks 70 ft wide and 18 ft
deeper
• Raise the water level of Gatun
Lake
• Record transit fee: $4M
For this project, geotechnical engineers:
• Planed massive earthwork (excavations/fills)
• Perform slope stability analyses
• Design retaining walls
• Considered massive water pressures for analysis
Chek Lap Kok Airport, Hong Kong
• Reclaimed land on top of marine deposits (highly compressible.)
• World’s busiest cargo terminal.
• 68 Mm3 of soil was removed.
• 200 Mm3 were brought from neighboring locations.
For this project, geotechnical engineers:
• Planned dragging of the seafloor.
• Estimated settlement and rate of settlement for the island.
• Planned and supervised soil compaction and density targets.
•
Gotthard Base Tunnel, Switzerland
• World’s longest railway and deepest traffic tunnel
For this project, geotechnical engineers:
• Explored deep rock conditions and
properties.
• Performed tunnel design.
• Supervised tunnel boring machine.
• Installed geotechnical instrumentation for
construction and post-construction
monitoring.
Ok, ok. Those are quite unique projects around the world.
What is the geotechnical engineering developed in the
region?
Washington State has also produced
record-setting Geotechnical
Structures.
Tallest Mechanically Stabilized Earth
(MSE) wall – SeaTac third runway
140 ft tall
Bertha – Alaskan Way World’s largest
Viaduct Replacement tunnel-boring
SR99 through machine, when
Seattle’s downtown. built.
What do Geotechnical Engineers do?
• Evaluate geologic and subsurface conditions.
• Determine physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of soils.
• Identify groundwater conditions and their evolution over time.
• Assess the impact of excavations or fills,
• Evaluate the stability of natural or artificial slopes.
• Determine the best type of foundation to support planned structures.
• Evaluate the site response to potential earthquakes.
• Assess chemical and biological hazards in soils.
Geotechnical Engineering is
closely related to Geology.
More precisely, engineering
geology.
However, Geotechnical
Engineers limit subsurface
exploration to the upper few
hundred feet.
Other CEE Materials vs. Soils
• Concrete/Steel • Soil
• Linear elastic behavior • Non-linear inelastic behavior
• Isotropic • Anisotropic
• Uniform • Non-uniform
• Known properties • Unknown properties
• Easy and representative sampling • Hard to sample
• Many tests (e.g., concrete tests • Can only afford to test a small %
every 50 m3 = high % of material of material at a site (sometimes
tested) none!)
eotechnical Engineering is a relatively young branch of Civil Engineering.
Tower of Pisa, built in 13th
century
Before the 19th
century, there were no
theories about soil
behavior…
Experience and
trial/error were used
to build structures
And we you do not
have tools (theories)
to understand/resolve
a problem…
In the 15th
century,
things slowly
started to
change:
Leonardo da
Vinci studied
friction and the
angle piles of
sand formed
when poured
onto a surface.
In the 18th century,
trial and error
were not enough:
Charles Coulomb
developed theories for
the design of retaining
walls with (mostly)
military purposes.
In the 19th century…
William Rankine
Henri Darcy works on Otto Mohr establishes
develops the lateral earth
water flow in porous formal stress analysis.
pressure theory (also
materials.
related to retaining
walls.)
And then, in the early 20th century:
Karl Terzaghi
enters the game…
And rationalizes
most of the
empirical
knowledge
accumulated over
centuries
•Geotechnical Engineering is born…
•Its most fundamental theories are
gathered into what we call today soil
mechanics.
1. The origin of soils
Have you been on a hike recently?
Erosion and
Have you stopped to have a sip of water or a snack and
thought: weathering are some
of the processes that
“Ha! It’s funny I can scratch this rock and little pieces create erosion.
Igneous rock forms when molten
rock (magma or lava) cools and
solidifies
Sedimentary rock forms from the
accumulation, compaction, and
cementation of sediments such as
sand, silt, or organic material
Metamorphic rock forms when
existing rocks are changed by heat,
pressure, or chemical processes
without melting.
1.1 Weathering
Weathering is the process of alteration and breakdown of rock at or close to the Earth’s surface by chemical
decomposition, biological degradation, and physical disintegration that leads to the formation of soil.
Weathering is most severe in humid tropical climates, where it may extend over 200 m (600 ft) below the
ground surface.
Weathering mechanisms
Jointing: during the upward movement of rock in the
earth’s crust, temperature and pressure decrease,
inducing stress changes that break rock and form
joints.
Frost wedging: water in joints freezes and
expands.
Salt wedging: crystal growth in pore spaces exerts
pressure within rock.
Biological agents: root wedging, animal
burrowing.
Thermal expansion: warm-cold cycling, leading to
fatigue or incremental movement.
1.2 Pyroclastic derived soils
Depending on the force of the eruption, ejected lava can cool as it is propelled through the air
and can contain everything from large rocks and gravel-size debris to volcanic ash.
Soil, due to the accumulation of ashes, can
present a complex structure (big
interconnected pores and low density),
representing a serious risk of collapse if
disturbed.
Soil is in continuous change and motion… continuously being
transported by ice, water, and air and transformed due to
physicochemical processes.
2. Soil Types
2. Soil types
… in the context of different geological origin
2.1 Residual soils
A residual soil results from the in-place weathering of rock and is not subsequently
transported. In effect, there is often no definite boundary between rock and soil.
Weathering follows joints and bedding planes in the rock (usually chemical dissolution).
Karst Environments – dissolution of soluble rocks (sinkholes) – usually carbonates but can
be other easily-dissolved minerals (i.e., NaCl)
Karst Environments – dissolution of soluble rocks (sinkholes) Corvette Museum (Bowling Green,
Kentucky) - 2014
2.2 Glacial soils
Glaciers move and grind down rock and soil. These soils can be transported over
long distances.
[Link]
Glacial Till
Glacial till is unsorted, unstratified sediment dropped by glacial ice. Till is made up of all
grain sizes, from boulders to clay. It accumulates beneath glacial ice, at the toe of a glacier,
and along glacial flanks.
During glaciations (last one 12,000
years ago), high sheets of ice cover
soils.
Glaciers on top of current Seattle
reached elevations over 3000 ft
over current sea level.
Soil subjected to extreme
pressures has produced Till of
exceptional (very good) mechanical
properties.
Advance Outwash
Advance outwash refers to sediments deposited by meltwater streams in front of an
advancing glacier. These deposits are often sorted by size as they are transported by flowing
water, typically forming stratified layers of sand, gravel, and sometimes silt.
A moraine is a mass of soil deposited by
the glacier itself. Their topography and
characteristics strongly depend on the
glacier dynamics.
Recessional Outwash
Recessional outwash refers to sediments deposited by meltwater streams in front of a
retreating glacier. Unlike advance outwash, which forms during glacier advancement,
recessional outwash is associated with periods of glacial retreat when meltwater flows over
previously deposited materials.
It is often quite difficult to
differentiate recessional from
advance outwash.
Recessional outwash may
exhibit more complex
stratigraphy due to multiple
depositional episodes.
Glacial Erratic
Glacial erratic: large rock or boulder that a glacier has dropped, often far from its
original location. These rocks are distinct because they differ in size, type, or
composition from the surrounding bedrock or soil. Erratics can be transported hundreds
or even thousands of kilometers from their source.
Drumlins
Drumlins are elongated and aligned hills of molded glacial till
that formed underneath the continental ice sheet. They are
likened to a “field of swimming whales.”
Relief of
2.2 Fluvial and lacustrine deposits
Meanders evolve over time, becoming more sinuous before eventually being chopped off. The
highest-velocity water erodes the outside of a bend, which is called the cut bank. The inside of
the bend (the point bar) is the site of sediment deposition.
Alluviums/Alluvial soils:
Alluviums/Alluvial soils:
sediments that are deposited by
rivers, streams, or other flowing
bodies of water. Alluvium is
typically composed of a mixture of
fine particles, such as silt and clay,
as well as coarser materials, like
sand and gravel.
Lacustrine and marine sediments
These are types of sedimentary deposits that accumulate in water environments, typically in
lakes (lacustrine) and oceans or seas (marine). Often exhibit distinct horizontal layering,
reflecting seasonal or episodic deposition. May contain organic material, such as peat or plant
remains, particularly in shallow lakes.
Usually very loose
(a lot of pores
compared to the
volume of
particles) and
composed of fine
grains (small size).
Colluvium
Colluvium refers to the loose material that accumulates at the base of hillslopes or steep
slopes due to gravitational processes such as landslides or rockfall.
Unlike alluvium, which is deposited by flowing water, colluvium is primarily the result of
gravitational movement and accumulation of soil and rock fragments downslope.
Colluvium or residual soil?
2.3 Aeolian deposits
Aeolian deposits, or Loess is a type of wind-blown sediment consisting predominantly of
small size particles. It is typically yellowish or brownish-yellow in color and is
characterized by its high porosity and ability to be easily eroded.
Loess deposits are commonly found in semiarid to temperate regions around the world,
including parts of North America, Europe, and Asia.
2.4 Organic soils
Organic Soils have a high content of organic matter, primarily derived from decomposed
plant materials. They are dark, smelly, have low density, and hold high water content.
Ok, but how to know what is beneath
our feet if no cuts or landslides have
occurred?
3. Subsurface Exploration
3. Subsoil exploration
Set of procedures, methods, and techniques to explore subsoil composition, layering,
and mechanical and chemical properties.
3.1 Test Pit
A small excavator removes soil in a vertical cut, usually reaching 8 to 12 feet deep. It is a
practical approach that allows us to identify soil types and layer thickness and trace the
site's history.
3.2 Bore Drilling
A hydraulic or pneumatic rig is used to drill vertically and extract and observe soil composition.
Rigs vary in size, power, reach,
and attached tools.
With some rigs, samples can be
taken and tested in the
laboratory.
The most common rig types are
presented in the following slides.
(a) Flight auger; and (b) bucket auger. Methods of dealing with caving or squeezing soils:
(a) casing, (b) hollow-stem auger, and (c) rotary
wash boring.
Preferred for fine-grained,
cohesive soils that can keep the Rotatory mud drilling usually uses a clayey
hole in place (no cave-in, no material (bentonite) to support the hole.
collapse of sides). Procedures and equipment ensure that no spills
(contamination) are produced
Flight auger Bucket auger Rotatory wash boring
In these cases, soil is not recovered in its original state. It has been disturbed.
Sonic Drilling is a boring drilling alternative in which a cylindrical sampler is advanced into
the soil with the help of high-frequency vibrations.
It allows one to recover long sections of soil in
relatively more intact conditions. Rapid advance
through the soil. Often preferred when testing for the
presence of contaminants.
It is more expensive, and advance is not linked to soil
mechanical properties. Vibrations can cause
The most common methods for subsurface exploration
that can be used to determine mechanical properties for
design are:
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Shelby Tube Sample
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
The most common disturbed sampling technique is the split spoon sampler, which is closely
associated with the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), which we’ll discuss in a moment. A
split-spoon (hollow cylinder) is driven (hit) by the action of a hammer. Soil is trapped inside
the split-spoon.
(a)
[Link]
Mud rotatory drilling with SPT
[Link]
bMg
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
- Split spoon sampler is driven 18 inches into soil w/ 140 lb hammer falling 30 inches
- Measures blows required per foot to drive sampler through soil
- SPT N value = # blows/ft for the last 12 inches of driving (ignore first 6 inches)
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
63.5-kg (140 lb)
Drop Hammer
Per ASTM D 1586
Repeatedly
Falling 760 mm
(30 inch)
Anvil
• Pros: Easy, well-
Borehole
established in US
Drill Rod
practice; available nearly
everywhere; rugged
Split-Barrel
(Drive) Sampler
[Thick Hollow
Tube]:
• Cons: equipment
variation; not continuous;
too simple.
}
First Increment SPT Resistance (N-value)
or “Blow Count” is total
Second Increment number of blows to drive
sampler last 300 mm (1 ft).
Third Increment
Undisturbed samples can also be recovered
The most common “undisturbed” sampling technique is the Shelby Tube Sampler
(Shelby tubes are slowly pushed; split-spoon samples are driven by dropping a weight).
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
- Cone-shaped penetrometer is pushed
continuously into the ground.
- Modern cones have 3 sensors: (1) cone
tip resistance load cell, qc; (2) sleeve
friction load cell, fs; and pore pressure
transducer, u2
- qc, fs, and u2 measurements can be used
to estimate a wide variety of soil
properties.
- qc is most important for estimating soil
density and strength.
- fs is important for estimating soil type,
grain size, and permeability.
- u2 useful for estimating soil type and
depth of ground water.
Typical presentation of raw CPT results:
Many commercial programs are available for processing data and estimating soil properties;
it would be very rare to work with CPT data “by hand.”
• Pros: more informative and continuous data; widely available; equipment more standard
and consistent than SPT; good in all soils except gravel
• Cons: no soil sample is obtained
The conditions encountered in a boring are presented in the form of a boring log:
A great source of subsoil information is available on the Washington Geologic Information Portal by the
Department of Natural Resources
[Link]
ology,500k_Surface_Geology,Map_Units
Series of borings allow Geotechnical Engineers to define soil layers (also called: soil
delineation, soil units, engineering soil units)