C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fifth Edition

Chapter 2: Basic Elements of C++

Objectives
In this chapter, you will: Become familiar with the basic components of a C++ program, including functions, special symbols, and identifiers Explore simple data types Discover how to use arithmetic operators Examine how a program evaluates arithmetic expressions
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Objectives (cont'd.)
Learn what an assignment statement is and what it does Become familiar with the string data type Discover how to input data into memory using input statements Become familiar with the use of increment and decrement operators Examine ways to output results using output statements
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Objectives (cont'd.)
Learn how to use preprocessor directives and why they are necessary Learn how to debug syntax errors Explore how to properly structure a program, including using comments to document a program Learn how to write a C++ program

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Introduction
Computer program
Sequence of statements whose objective is to accomplish a task

Programming
Process of planning and creating a program

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fifth Edition

A C++ Program
#include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { int num; num = 6; cout << "My first C++ program." << endl; cout << "The sum of 2 and 3 = " << 5 << endl; cout << "7 + 8 = " << 7 + 8 << endl; cout << "Num = " << num << endl; return 0; }
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The Basics of a C++ Program

Function: collection of statements; when executed, accomplishes something
May be predefined or standard

Syntax: rules that specify which statements (instructions) are legal Programming language: a set of rules, symbols, and special words Semantic rule: meaning of the instruction
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Comments
Comments are for the reader, not the compiler
Two types:
Single line
// This is a C++ program. It prints the sentence: // Welcome to C++ Programming.

Multiple line
/* You can include comments that can occupy several lines. */

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fifth Edition

Special Symbols
Special symbols
+ * / . ; ? , <= != == >=

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fifth Edition

Reserved Words (Keywords)

Reserved words, keywords, or word symbols
Include:
int float double char const void return
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Identifiers
Consist of letters, digits, and the underscore character (_) Must begin with a letter or underscore C++ is case sensitive
NUMBER is not the same as number

Two predefined identifiers are cout and cin Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers may be redefined, but it is not a good idea

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Identifiers (cont'd.)
Legal identifiers in C++:
first conversion payRate

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Whitespaces
Every C++ program contains whitespaces
Include blanks, tabs, and newline characters

Used to separate special symbols, reserved words, and identifiers Proper utilization of whitespaces is important
Can be used to make the program readable

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Data Types
Data type: set of values together with a set of operations C++ data types fall into three categories:

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Simple Data Types

Three categories of simple data
Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal) Floating-point: decimal numbers Enumeration type: user-defined data type

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Simple Data Types (cont'd.)

Integral data types are further classified into nine categories:
char, short, int, long, bool unsigned char, unsigned short, unsigned int, unsigned long

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Simple Data Types (cont'd.)

Different compilers may allow different ranges of values

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int Data Type

Examples:
-6728 0 78 +763

Positive integers do not need a + sign No commas are used within an integer
Commas are used for separating items in a list
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bool Data Type

bool type
Two values: true and false
Manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions

true and false

Logical values

bool, true, and false

Reserved words

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char Data Type

The smallest integral data type Used for characters: letters, digits, and special symbols Each character is enclosed in single quotes
'A', 'a', '0', '*', '+', '$', '&'

A blank space is a character

Written ' ', with a space left between the single quotes
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Floating-Point Data Types

C++ uses scientific notation to represent real numbers (floating-point notation)

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Floating-Point Data Types (cont'd.)

float: represents any real number
Range: -3.4E+38 to 3.4E+38 (four bytes)

double: represents any real number

Range: -1.7E+308 to 1.7E+308 (eight bytes)

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Floating-Point Data Types (cont'd.)

Maximum number of significant digits (decimal places) for float values is 6 or 7 Maximum number of significant digits for double is 15 Precision: maximum number of significant digits
Float values are called single precision Double values are called double precision
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Arithmetic Operators and Operator Precedence

C++ arithmetic operators:
+ addition - subtraction * multiplication / division % modulus operator

+, -, *, and / can be used with integral and floating-point data types Operators can be unary or binary
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Order of Precedence
All operations inside of () are evaluated first *, /, and % are at the same level of precedence and are evaluated next + and have the same level of precedence and are evaluated last When operators are on the same level
Performed from left to right (associativity)

3 * 7 - 6 + 2 * 5 / 4 + 6 means
(((3 * 7) 6) + ((2 * 5) / 4 )) + 6
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Expressions
If all operands are integers
Expression is called an integral expression
Yields an integral result Example: 2 + 3 * 5

If all operands are floating-point

Expression is called a floating-point expression
Yields a floating-point result Example: 12.8 * 17.5 - 34.50
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Mixed Expressions
Mixed expression:
Has operands of different data types Contains integers and floating-point

Examples of mixed expressions:

2 + 3.5 6 / 4 + 3.9 5.4 * 2 13.6 + 18

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Mixed Expressions (cont'd.)

Evaluation rules:
If operator has same types of operands
Evaluated according to the type of the operands

If operator has both types of operands

Integer is changed to floating-point Operator is evaluated Result is floating-point

Entire expression is evaluated according to precedence rules

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Type Conversion (Casting)

Implicit type coercion: when value of one type is automatically changed to another type Cast operator: provides explicit type conversion
static_cast<dataTypeName>(expression)

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Type Conversion (cont'd.)

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string Type
Programmer-defined type supplied in ANSI/ISO Standard C++ library Sequence of zero or more characters Enclosed in double quotation marks Null: a string with no characters Each character has relative position in string
Position of first character is 0

Length of a string is number of characters in it

Example: length of "William Jacob" is 13
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Input
Data must be loaded into main memory before it can be manipulated Storing data in memory is a two-step process:
Instruct computer to allocate memory Include statements to put data into memory

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Allocating Memory with Constants and Variables

Named constant: memory location whose content cant change during execution The syntax to declare a named constant is: In C++, const is a reserved word

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Allocating Memory with Constants and Variables (cont'd.)

Variable: memory location whose content may change during execution The syntax to declare a named constant is:

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Putting Data into Variables

Ways to place data into a variable:
Use C++s assignment statement Use input (read) statements

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Assignment Statement
The assignment statement takes the form:

Expression is evaluated and its value is assigned to the variable on the left side In C++, = is called the assignment operator

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Assignment Statement (cont'd.)

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Saving and Using the Value of an Expression

To save the value of an expression:
Declare a variable of the appropriate data type Assign the value of the expression to the variable that was declared
Use the assignment statement

Wherever the value of the expression is needed, use the variable holding the value
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Declaring & Initializing Variables

Variables can be initialized when declared:
int first=13, second=10; char ch=' '; double x=12.6;

All variables must be initialized before they are used

But not necessarily during declaration

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Input (Read) Statement

cin is used with >> to gather input

The stream extraction operator is >> For example, if miles is a double variable cin >> miles;
Causes computer to get a value of type double Places it in the variable miles
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Input (Read) Statement (cont'd.)

Using more than one variable in cin allows more than one value to be read at a time For example, if feet and inches are variables of type int, a statement such as:
cin >> feet >> inches;

Inputs two integers from the keyboard Places them in variables feet and inches respectively
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Input (Read) Statement (cont'd.)

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Variable Initialization
There are two ways to initialize a variable:
int feet;
By using the assignment statement
feet = 35;

By using a read statement

cin >> feet;

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Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment operator: increment variable by 1
Pre-increment: ++variable Post-increment: variable++

Decrement operator: decrement variable by 1

Pre-decrement: --variable Post-decrement: variable

What is the difference between the following?

x = 5; y = ++x; x = 5; y = x++;
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C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fifth Edition

Output
The syntax of cout and << is:
Called an output statement

The stream insertion operator is << Expression evaluated and its value is printed at the current cursor position on the screen
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Output (cont'd.)
A manipulator is used to format the output
Example: endl causes insertion point to move to beginning of next line

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Output (cont'd.)
The new line character is '\n'
May appear anywhere in the string
cout << "Hello there."; cout << "My name is James.";

Output:
Hello [Link] name is James. cout << "Hello there.\n"; cout << "My name is James.";

Output :
Hello there. My name is James.
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Output (cont'd.)

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Preprocessor Directives
C++ has a small number of operations Many functions and symbols needed to run a C++ program are provided as collection of libraries Every library has a name and is referred to by a header file Preprocessor directives are commands supplied to the preprocessor All preprocessor commands begin with # No semicolon at the end of these commands
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Preprocessor Directives (cont'd.)

Syntax to include a header file:

For example:
#include <iostream>

Causes the preprocessor to include the header file iostream in the program
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namespace and Using cin and cout in a Program

cin and cout are declared in the header file iostream, but within std namespace To use cin and cout in a program, use the following two statements: #include <iostream> using namespace std;

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Using the string Data Type in a Program

To use the string type, you need to access its definition from the header file string Include the following preprocessor directive: #include <string>

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Creating a C++ Program

C++ program has two parts:
Preprocessor directives The program

Preprocessor directives and program statements constitute C++ source code (.cpp) Compiler generates object code (.obj) Executable code is produced and saved in a file with the file extension .exe
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Creating a C++ Program (cont'd.)

A C++ program is a collection of functions, one of which is the function main The first line of the function main is called the heading of the function:
int main()

The statements enclosed between the curly braces ({ and }) form the body of the function
Contains two types of statements:
Declaration statements Executable statements
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Creating a C++ Program (cont'd.)

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Creating a C++ Program (cont'd.)

Sample Run: Line 9: firstNum = 18 Line 10: Enter an integer: 15

Line 13: secondNum = 15 Line 15: The new value of firstNum = 60

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Debugging: Understanding and Fixing Syntax Errors

Compile a program
Compiler will identify the syntax error Specifies the line numbers where the errors occur
Example2_Syntax_Errors.cpp c:\chapter 2 source code\example2_syntax_errors.cpp(9) : error C2146: syntax error : missing ';' before identifier 'num' c:\chapter 2 source code\example2_syntax_errors.cpp(11) : error C2065: 'tempNum' : undeclared identifier

Learn how to spot and fix syntax errors

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Program Style and Form

Every C++ program has a function main

Programs must also follow syntax rules Other rules serve the purpose of giving precise meaning to the language

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Syntax
Errors in syntax are found in compilation
int x; int y double z; //Line 1 //Line 2: error //Line 3

y = w + x; //Line 4: error

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Use of Blanks
In C++, you use one or more blanks to separate numbers when data is input
Used to separate reserved words and identifiers from each other and from other symbols Must never appear within a reserved word or identifier

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Use of Semicolons, Brackets, and Commas

All C++ statements end with a semicolon
Also called a statement terminator

{ and } are not C++ statements Commas separate items in a list

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Semantics
Possible to remove all syntax errors in a program and still not have it run Even if it runs, it may still not do what you meant it to do For example,
2 + 3 * 5 and (2 + 3) * 5

are both syntactically correct expressions, but have different meanings

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Naming Identifiers
Identifiers can be self-documenting:
CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH

Avoid run-together words :

annualsale Solution:
Capitalize the beginning of each new word: annualSale Inserting an underscore just before a new word: annual_sale
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Prompt Lines
Prompt lines: executable statements that inform the user what to do
cout << "Please enter a number between 1 and 10 and " << "press the return key" << endl; cin >> num;

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Documentation
A well-documented program is easier to understand and modify You use comments to document programs Comments should appear in a program to:
Explain the purpose of the program Identify who wrote it Explain the purpose of particular statements

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Form and Style

Consider two ways of declaring variables:
Method 1
int feet, inch; double x, y;

Method 2
int feet,inch;double x,y;

Both are correct; however, the second is hard to read

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More on Assignment Statements

C++ has special assignment statements called compound assignments
+=, -=, *=, /=, and %=

Example:
x *= y;

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Programming Example: Convert Length

Write a program that takes as input a given length expressed in feet and inches
Convert and output the length in centimeters

Input: length in feet and inches Output: equivalent length in centimeters Lengths are given in feet and inches Program computes the equivalent length in centimeters One inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters
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Programming Example: Convert Length (cont'd.)

Convert the length in feet and inches to all inches:
Multiply the number of feet by 12 Add given inches

Use the conversion formula (1 inch = 2.54 centimeters) to find the equivalent length in centimeters

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Programming Example: Convert Length (cont'd.)

The algorithm is as follows:
Get the length in feet and inches Convert the length into total inches Convert total inches into centimeters Output centimeters

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Programming Example: Variables and Constants

Variables
int feet; //variable to hold given feet int inches; //variable to hold given inches int totalInches; //variable to hold total inches double centimeters; //variable to hold length in //centimeters

Named Constant
const double CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH = 2.54;

const int INCHES_PER_FOOT = 12;

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Programming Example: Main Algorithm

Prompt user for input Get data Echo the input (output the input) Find length in inches Output length in inches Convert length to centimeters Output length in centimeters
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Programming Example: Putting It Together

Program begins with comments System resources will be used for I/O Use input statements to get data and output statements to print results Data comes from keyboard and the output will display on the screen The first statement of the program, after comments, is preprocessor directive to include header file iostream
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Programming Example: Putting It Together (cont'd.)

Two types of memory locations for data manipulation:
Named constants
Usually put before main

Variables

This program has only one function (main), which will contain all the code The program needs variables to manipulate data, which are declared in main
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Programming Example: Body of the Function

The body of the function main has the following form: int main () { declare variables statements return 0; }
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Programming Example: Writing a Complete Program

Begin the program with comments for documentation Include header files Declare named constants, if any Write the definition of the function main

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Programming Example: Writing a Complete Program (contd.)

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Programming Example: Sample Run

Enter two integers, one for feet, one for inches: 15 7 The numbers you entered are 15 for feet and 7 for inches. The total number of inches = 187 The number of centimeters = 474.98

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Summary
C++ program: collection of functions where each program has a function called main Identifier consists of letters, digits, and underscores, and begins with letter or underscore The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition (+), subtraction (-),multiplication (*), division (/), and modulus (%) Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the precedence associativity rules
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Summary (cont'd.)
All operands in an integral expression are integers and all operands in a floating-point expression are decimal numbers Mixed expression: contains both integers and decimal numbers Use the cast operator to explicitly convert values from one data type to another A named constant is initialized when declared All variables must be declared before used
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Summary (cont'd.)
Use cin and stream extraction operator >> to input from the standard input device Use cout and stream insertion operator << to output to the standard output device Preprocessor commands are processed before the program goes through the compiler A file containing a C++ program usually ends with the extension .cpp
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