SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

25EI2103 – Electronics and Sensor

Applications
Module-1 Electronics Foundation for Smart
Systems
Presented by

[Link]
Assistant Professor (Sr.G),
Department of EIE
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College
Coimbatore- 641022

Module I-Electronics & Sensors-

04/16/2026 [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 1
COS, COURSE OUTCOMES
On successful completion of the course, the students
Course
will be able to
Outcomes CO1:Apply fundamental electronic and sensing
principles to design basic intelligent sensing
circuits and signal- conditioning systems.
CO2:Utilize appropriate communication protocols and
interfacing methods for effective integration of
sensors in smart applications.
CO3:Examine the performance of multi-sensor
systems considering characteristics such as
linearity, hysteresis, accuracy, and power
efficiency.
CO4:Analyze sensor-integrated smart systems to
derive insights for applications in health,
environment,
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE and infrastructure. 04/16/2026 2
CO5:Assess the sustainability and societal impact of
 SYLLABUS

ELECTRONICS FOUNDATION FOR SMART SYSTEMS 10

Electrical quantities: voltage, current, resistance, power – Ohm’s law-Analog vs digital signals
–Semiconductor devices: diodes, transistors-Role of electronic components in processors, data
acquisition, and energy-efficient computing
SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES AND CHARACTERISTICS 10
Sensing principles: resistive, capacitive-Transducers: classification, static and dynamic
characteristics-Common sensors: LM35, LDR, ultrasonic, IR sensor, capacitive proximity, Hall
effect sensor-Calibration, linearity and sensitivity - multi-sensor data inconsistencies
(temperature vs humidity) in agricultural automation.
SENSOR INTEGRATION AND SMART APPLICATIONS 10
Microcontroller-based sensing systems-Sensor communication protocol: I²C- Sensor-to-cloud
communication: MQTT-AI-enabled sensor fusion for adaptive control and decision-making
CASE STUDIES
1. Integration of multiple sensors (gas, temperature, humidity, particulate) with an
embedded controller.
2. Implement a system to transmit a data from a ultrasonic sensor to the data acquisition.
3. Application of AI regression model for pollution-level prediction and anomaly detection
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 3
 BOOKS REFERRED
TEXT BOOKS
1. [Link], "A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation", 19 th
Edition, DhanpatRai & Co. (P) Ltd, 2019.
2. Jacob Fraden, "Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications", 4 th Edition,
Springer, Science and business media, 2010.

REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Pethuru Raj and Anupama C. Raman, "The Internet of Things: Enabling Technologies,
Platforms, and Use Cases", 1st Edition, CRC Press,2017.
4. Hermann K.P. Neubert, "Instrument Transducer", 2nd Edition, Oxford University press, 2015.
5. Raj Kamal, "Internet of Things",1st Edition, McGraw Hill Education, 2017.

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MODULE-1 ELECTRONICS FOUNDATION FOR SMART
SYSTEMS

 Electrical quantities: voltage, current, resistance, power – Ohm’s law-

Analog vs digital signals –Semiconductor devices: diodes, transistors-Role
of electronic components in processors, data acquisition, and energy-
efficient computing

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 ELECTRICAL QUANTITY

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 ELECTRICAL QUANTITY

 In electrical and electronic circuits, there are five major electrical quantities
that used to analyze circuits.

 These quantities are electric charge, electric current, voltage, electric

power and electrical energy

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 ELECTRIC CHARGE

 Electric charge or simply charge is the property of subatomic particles like

protons and electrons.

 The electric charge is denoted by symbol Q or q and measured in Coulombs

(C).

 Technically, electric charge is the concept which explains the electrical

behavior of materials.

 Therefore, it is the electric charge that forms the basis of existence of the
electricity.

 The electric charge is the most elementary quantity in an electric circuit.

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 ELECTRIC CHARGE

As per the electron theory of matter, we know that every material consists of
tiny particles called molecules, and molecules in turn made up of atoms.

An atoms consists of three fundamental particles namely electrons,

protons and neutrons.

Where, electrons bear a negative charge, protons carry a positive charge and
neutron is neutral, i.e. there is no charge on the neutron.

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 TYPES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

Electric charge can be of two types

 Positive charge  carried by a proton

 Negative charge  carried by a electron

 In the nature, the smallest amount of charge that exists is the charge carried
by an electrons, denoted by e, where it is equal to 1.6×10−19C.
 Though, a proton also carries a charge of 1.6×10−19C, but it is positive.

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 ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Electric current is defined as the directed flow of electric charge under the
influence of an electric field. It is denoted by symbol I or i, where I is used to
denoted a constant electric current and i is used to denote a time-varying
current.
 Mathematically, the time rate of flow of electric charge (electrons) is known as
electric current, i.e.,
I=Q/t
 In differential form,

i(t)=dq(t)/dt
 Where, Q is electric charge measured in coulombs and t is time in seconds. we
use SI unit Ampere (A) to measure the electric current.

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 ELECTRIC CURRENT
 The conventional direction of the electric current is
from the point of higher potential (positive terminal) to
the point of lower potential (negative terminal).
 However, the actual direction of electric current is the
direction of flow of electrons which is from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.
 As from the definition of the electric current, it is clear
that the electric current is due to the flow of electric
charge or electrons.
 Therefore, it shows two fundamental effects
viz. heating effect and magnetic effect.
 Which means, when the electric current flows through
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a conductor, it produced a magnetic field around the
 TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Depending on the direction of flow of charge, the

electric current may be classified into two types

 Direct Current  A direct current (DC) is one which

flow in only one direction.

 Alternating Current  An alternating current (AC) is

one whose magnitude changes continuously and
direction changes periodically.

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 VOLTAGE
 Voltage, also known as potential difference, is the electric pressure which
makes the electric charges to flow in a conductor.
 The voltage is defined as the work or energy required to move a unit charge
from one point to another in an electric circuit.
 It is denoted by the symbol V (constant voltage) and v (time-varying voltage).

Voltage, V = W/Q
In differential form,
v(t)=dw/dq
Where, W is the work done measured in joules (J) and Q is the charge in
Coulombs (C). Thus, the voltage is measured in Joules per Coulomb (J/C).
However, in practice, we measure the voltage in volts (V).

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 TYPES OF VOLTAGE
 Just like the electric current, the voltage is also classified into two types:

 Direct Voltage  A direct voltage is one which has constant magnitude with respect to time.

 Alternating Voltage  An alternating voltage is one which changes its polarity in alternate direction
with respect to time.

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 ELECTRIC POWER
 The time rate of expanding or absorbing energy in an electric circuit is known as
electric power. In other words, the rate of doing work in an electric circuit is
called electric power
 It is denoted by P or p. Where, P is used to represent constant or average power,
while p is used to denoted instantaneous power.
Mathematically, the electric power is given by,
P=Workdone/Time

And the instantaneous power is given by,

p(t)=dw/dt

Where, W is work done measured in Joules (J) and t in time in seconds (s).
Thus, the unit of electric power is Joules per second (J/s). But, in practice, we use
the SI unit of power that is Watt (W).
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 ELECTRIC POWER
dw=v(t).dq
dt=dq/i(t)
p(t)=v(t).dq/dq/i(t)
P(t)=v(t).i(t)
 Hence, the electric power is simply the product of the voltage across a circuit
element and the current flowing through the element.
 In any electric circuit, if the electric current enters the circuit element at the
positive terminal and leaves the element at the negative terminal, then the
power is said to be absorbed by the element.
 On the other hand, if the current enters the element through the negative
terminal and exits through the positive terminal, the element delivers the
electric power.

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 OHM’S LAW
 Ohm’s law states that the electrical current flowing through any conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) between its ends,
assuming the physical conditions of the conductor do not change.
 Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor is proportional to the
voltage across it and inversely proportional to its resistance.
 The basic formula of Ohm’s Law, I = V/R, helps determine the current if the
voltage and resistance are known.

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 OHM’S LAW

Where,
 R is the resistance of the conductor in Ohm
 I is the current through the conductor in Amperes (A),
 V is the voltage or potential difference measured across the conductor in Volts
(V).

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 WHAT IS OHM'S LAW?
 Ohm’s law is applicable to both DC and AC.

 The relationship between the potential difference or voltage (V), the

current (I) and the resistance (R) in an electrical circuit was first discovered
by the German physicist George Simon Ohm.

 The unit of resistance is Ohm was named in honour of George Simon

Ohm.

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 OHM’S LAW

 Consider a water tank placed at a certain height above the ground. There is a hose at
the bottom of the water tank as shown in the image below.

Analogy 1
 The water pressure in pascals at the end of the hose is analogous to voltage or
potential difference in an electric circuit.
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 21
 OHM’S LAW

 The water flow rate in litres per second is analogous to electric current in
coulombs per second in an electric circuit.
 The restrictors to the water flow such as apertures placed in pipes between
two points are analogues to the resistors in an electric circuit.
 Thus, the water flow rate through an aperture restrictor is proportional to
the difference in water pressure across the restrictor.

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 OHM’S LAW

 Similarly, in an electric circuit, the current flowing through a conductor or

resistor between two points is directly proportional to the difference in
voltage or potential difference across the conductor or resistor.
 We can also say that resistance offered to water flow is depending on the
length of the pipe, the material of the pipe, and the height of the tank
placed above the ground.
 Ohm’s work in a similar manner in an electric circuit that electrical
resistance offered to the current flow is depending on the length of the
conductor and material of the conductor used

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 OHM’S LAW FORMULA
 The relationship between voltage or potential difference, current and
resistance can be written in three different ways.
 If we know any two values, we can calculate the third unknown value by using
ohm’s law relationship. Thus, ohm’s law is very useful in electronics and
electrical formulas and calculations.
 When known electric current flows through known resistance then the voltage
drop across the resistance can be calculated by the relationship

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 24

 VOLTAGE IN OHM’S LAW

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 CURRENT IN OHM’S LAW

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 RESISTANCE IN OHM’S LAW

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 OHM’S LAW TRIANGLE

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 OHM’S LAW PIE CHART

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 OHM’S LAW PRACTICE PROBLEMS
 Example 1
 As shown in the circuit below, a current of 4 A is flowing through the resistance
of 15 Ω. Determine the voltage drop across the circuit using ohm’s law.

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 OHM’S LAW PRACTICE PROBLEMS

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 OHM’S LAW PRACTICE PROBLEMS

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 OHM’S LAW PRACTICE PROBLEMS

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 OHM’S LAW PRACTICE PROBLEMS

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 OHM’S LAW PRACTICE PROBLEMS

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 APPLICATIONS OF OHM’S LAW
 Some of the applications of Ohm’s law includes:

 To calculate the unknown potential difference or voltage, resistance, and flow

of the current of an electric circuit.

 Ohm’s law is used in an electronic circuit to determine the internal voltage

drop across the electronic components.

 Ohm’s law is used in DC measuring circuits particularly in DC ammeter in

which a low resistance shunt is used to divert the current.

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 MCQ
1. Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional
to the
a) Power
b) Voltage
c) Resistance
d) Temperature
Ans: b) Voltage
2. The mathematical expression of Ohm’s law is
a) V = IR
b) I = VR
c) R = VI
d) V = I/R
Ans: a) V = IR
3. The unit of electrical resistance is
a) Volt b) Ampere c) Ohm d) Watt
Ans: c) Ohm
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 37
 MCQ

4. If the voltage across a resistor is doubled while resistance remains constant,

the current will
a) Become half
b) Become zero
c) Double
d) Remain same
Ans: c) Double
5. Which of the following materials best obeys Ohm’s law?
a) Diode
b) Transistor
c) Copper wire
d) Thermistor
Ans: c) Copper wire

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 ANALOG SIGNAL

 An analog signal is a continuous signal that changes smoothly

over time. It represents natural physical variables such as sound,
temperature, and light without any breaks.

 Its amplitude can take an infinite number of values, allowing

smooth and detailed variation.

 Analog signals are often shown as sine waves and can be periodic
(repeating, like AC voltages) or non-periodic (irregular, like human
speech).

 Analog signals are continuous, they are excellent for real-time

sensing and natural audio recording.
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 ANALOG SIGNAL

However, analog signals are highly susceptible to noise. Any small

interference can distort the signal, especially when transmitted over long
distances, causing quality loss.
Examples:
 Human voice in air
 Traditional radio broadcasting
 Module
Thermocouple output
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 ANALOG SIGNAL

 Continuous in time and amplitude

 Smooth waveform representation
 Infinite possible values
 Easily affected by noise
 Best for real-world real-time data

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 DIGITAL SIGNAL

 A digital signal is a discrete signal that carries information using

binary values — 0 and 1. Instead of smooth variation, the signal
jumps between two fixed levels, represented by square waves.

 Digital signals are highly resistant to noise, easy to store,

compress, and transmit securely. They are perfect for modern
communication and computing systems.

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 DIGITAL SIGNAL

 Digital systems often require Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) to convert

natural analog data into digital form and Digital-to-Analog Converters
(DAC) when converting processed data back into real-world use.
Examples:
 Computer and mobile data
 Digital audio (MP3)
 Digital video streaming
 Optical fiber communication

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 DIGITAL SIGNAL

 Discrete in time and amplitude

 Uses binary: 0 and 1
 Highly noise-resistant
 Easy to encrypt and compress
 Suitable for high-speed transmission

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 ANALOG SIGNAL VS DIGITAL SIGNAL
Feature Analog Signal Digital Signal
Nature Continuous waveform Discrete binary waveform
Value Range Infinite values Only 0 and 1
Representation Sine waves Square waves
Accuracy High detail but noisy Very accurate and stable
Noise
Low High
Resistance
Transmission Loses quality over distance Retains quality over distance
Processing Hard to store and secure Easy to store, encrypt, and process
Conversion
Not required Needs ADC/DAC
Needed
Bandwidth Generally lower Often higher
Best Use Real-world natural signals Digital communication and computing

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE Computers, smartphones, internet

04/16/2026 45
Examples Radio, microphones, analog meters
systems
 SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

• Materials that combine some of the electrical characteristics of conductors with

those of insulators are known as semiconductors
• Common types of semiconductor material are silicon, germanium, selenium and
gallium.
• In the pure state, these materials may have relatively few free electrons to permit the
flow of electric current.
• It is possible to add foreign atoms (impurity atoms) to the semiconductor
material in order to modify the properties of the semiconductor and allow it to
conduct electricity.
SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
 SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

• Electrons are in constant motion as they orbit around the nucleus

of the atom. Electron orbits are organized into shells .
• The maximum number of electrons present in the first shell is two,
in the second shell eight, and in the third, fourth and fifth shells it
is 18, 32 and 50, respectively.
• If the valence shell contains the maximum number of electrons
possible the electrons are rigidly bonded together and the material
has the properties of an insulator.
 SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

• In its pure state, silicon is an insulator because the covalent bonding

rigidly holds all of the electrons leaving no free (easily loosened)
electrons to conduct current.
• An atom of a different element (i.e. an impurity ) is introduced that has
five electrons in its valence shell, a surplus electron will be present.
• These free electrons become available for use as charge carriers and they
can be made again, current will flow when an external potential
difference is applied to the material.
 SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

The impurity element produces surplus electrons or holes, the material will
no longer behave as an insulator, neither will it have the properties that we
normally associate with a metallic conductor.
This material is called as a semiconductor which is no longer a good
insulator nor a good conductor but has the properties of something between
the two.
Examples of semiconductors include Germanium ( Ge ) and Silicon ( Si ).
 SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

• The process of introducing an atom of another (impurity)

element into the lattice of pure material is called doping .
• When the pure material is doped with an impurity with five
electrons in its valence shell (i.e. a pentavalent impurity )
it will become an N-type (i.e. negative type) material.
• The pure material is doped with an impurity having three
electrons in its valence shell (i.e. a trivalent impurity ) it
will become P-type material (i.e. positive type).
• N-type semiconductor material contains an excess of
negative charge carriers, and P-type material contains an
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

• As the temperature increases, the nuclei vibrate more energetically, further

obstructing the path of the free electrons, causing more frequent collisions.
• The resistance of a metal conductor increases with temperature.
• Due to the nature of the bonding in insulators, there are no free electrons,
except that when thermal energy increases as a result of a temperature
increase, a few outer electrons manage to break free from their fixed positions
and act as charge carriers.
• The resistance of an insulator decreases as temperature increases.
 SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

• Semiconductors behave in a similar manner to insulators.

• At absolute zero ( 273°C) both types of material act as perfect insulators.

• As temperature increases in a semiconductor large numbers of electrons

break free to act as charge carriers.
• When temperature increases, the resistance of a semiconductor
decreases rapidly.
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Semiconductor devices are essential electronic components that utilize the

unique properties of semiconductor materials to control electrical current,
forming the backbone of modern electronics.

 A semiconductor device is an electronic component that relies on the electronic

properties of semiconductor materials, primarily silicon, germanium, and
gallium arsenide.

 These materials have conductivity levels that fall between conductors (like
metals) and insulators (like rubber).

 This unique property allows semiconductors to control the flow of electric

current effectively, making them crucial in various electronic applications.

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 Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in pure form is called an intrinsic semiconductor,
e.g. (Ge) Germanium, (Si) Silicon, etc.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
 The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be
altered by adding a suitable amount of impurities to it. The
resulting substance is called extrinsic semiconductor.
 The process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor
is known as doping and the impurity added is known as
doping agent.
 The common doping agents are pentavalent elements such as
arsenic, antimony, phosphorous, etc. and trivalent elements
such as indium, aluminum, gallium, etc.
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 P-Type Semiconductor
P-Type Semiconductor

 When a small amount of trivalent impurity such as aluminium, indium,

etc is added to a pure semiconductor, then resulting extrinsic
semiconductor is known as P-type semiconductor.

 Aluminium atom has three valence electrons and it forms three covalent
bonds with three germanium atoms

Structure of Ge crystal with a trivalent impurity atom (Al) doping, the three Al
atom valence electrons forming three covalent bonds with the Ge atoms and the
fourth bond having a deficiency of an electron or a hole.
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 P-Type Semiconductor
In the fourth covalent bond, only germanium atom contributes one
valence electron while aluminium has no valence electron to contribute.
Being short of one electron, fourth bond is incomplete. The deficiency of
electron is called a hole and treated as a positive charge.
 For each atom added, one hole is created. A small quantity of aluminum
provides millions of holes.
However, there are a few free electrons due to thermal energy. But the number
of holes far exceeds compared to number of free electrons.
Thus, in P-type semiconductors, holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carriers.

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 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

 When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as arsenic, antimony, etc. is

added to a pure semiconductor, then resulting extrinsic semiconductor is known
as N-type semiconductor.
 The structure of germanium crystal when pentavalent impurity arsenic is added to
it. Arsenic atom has five valence electrons and it forms four covalent bonds with
four germanium atoms.

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 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Structure of Ge crystal with a pentavalent impurity atom (As) doping, with the four As atom valence
electrons forming four covalent bonds with the Ge atoms

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 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Diodes
 Transistors
 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
 Photodiodes
 Power Semiconductor Devices

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 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Diodes: These are two-terminal devices that allow current to flow in one direction only.
They are commonly used for rectification in power supplies and signal demodulation.

 Transistors: These are three-terminal devices that can amplify or switch electronic
signals. They are fundamental components in integrated circuits and are used in
everything from computers to radios.

 Integrated Circuits (ICs): These consist of multiple semiconductor devices (like

transistors and diodes) fabricated onto a single chip, allowing for complex
functionalities in a compact form.

 Photodiodes: These devices convert light into electrical current and are used in
applications like solar cells and optical sensors.

 Power Semiconductor Devices: Designed for high current and voltage applications,
these devices are used in power electronics, such as inverters and converters

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 DIODES
 Two terminal electrical components that allow current to flow in one
direction only

 Current can flow from anode to cathode, but not from cathode to anode
 Analogous to check valves
 Fluid can flow in one direction only:

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 DIODE

• When a junction is formed between N-type and P-type semiconductor materials, the
resulting device is called a diode .

• This component offers an extremely low resistance to current flow in one direction and
an extremely high resistance to current flow in the other.

• An ideal diode would pass an infinite current in one direction and no current at all in
the other direction .
 DIODE

• Connections are made to each side of the diode.

• The connection to the P-type material is referred to as the anode while that to the
N-type material is called the cathode .
• With no externally applied potential, electrons from the N-type material will cross
into the P-type region and fill some of the vacant holes.
• This action will result in the production of a region either side of the junction in
which there are no free charge carriers. This zone is known as the depletion
(decrease in something) region.
 DIODE

• If a positive voltage is applied to the anode the free positive charge

carriers in the P-type material will be repelled and they will move away
from the positive potential towards the junction.
• The negative potential applied to the cathode will cause the free negative
charge carriers in the N-type material to move away from the negative
potential towards the junction.
 DIODE-FORWARD BIASED

• When the positive and negative charge carriers arrive at the

junction, they will attract one another and combine.
• As each negative and positive charge carrier combine at the
junction, a new negative and positive charge carrier will be
introduced to the semiconductor material from the voltage
source.
• As these new charge carriers enter the semiconductor
material, they will move towards the junction and combine.
• Current flow is established and it will continue for as long as
the voltage is applied.
DIODE-FORWARD BIASED
 DIODE-REVERSE BIASED

• If a negative voltage is applied to the anode, the free

positive charge carriers in the P-type material will be
attracted and they will move away from the junction.
• Likewise, the positive potential applied to the cathode
will cause the free negative charge carriers in the N-
type material to move away from the junction.
• In this reverse-biased condition, the diode passes a
negligible amount of current.
DIODE-REVERSE BIASED
 VI CHARACTERISTICS

• The approximate forward conduction voltage for a germanium diode is 0.2 V and that
for a silicon diode is 0.6 V.
• This threshold voltage must be high enough to completely overcome the potential
associated with the depletion region and force charge carriers to move across the
junction.
• The negative potential at the P-type material attracts the positive carriers, drawing
them away from the junction. This leaves the area depleted; virtually no charge carriers
exist and therefore current flow is inhibited.
 VI CHARACTERISTICS

• If the reverse bias potential is increased above the maximum reverse voltage
( VRM ) or peak inverse voltage ( PIV ) quoted by the manufacturer, the
depletion region may suffer an irreversible breakdown.
• Typical values of maximum reverse voltage range from as low as 50 V to well over
500 V.
• A typical general-purpose diode may be specified as having a forward threshold
voltage of 0.6 V and a reverse breakdown voltage of 200 V. If the latter is exceeded,
the diode may suffer irreversible damage.
 VI CHARACTERISTICS

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 73

 CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

 A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that

allows current to flow in only one direction.

 This property is called rectification, and it is the basic

function of a diode.

 Diodes are used in a wide variety of electronic devices,

including power supplies, radios, and computers.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 74

 Characteristics of a Diode
 The most common type of diode is the p-n junction diode. This
type of diode is made from two pieces of semiconductor
material, one with a positive charge (p-type) and one with a
negative charge (n-type).

 When the p-type and n-type materials are joined together, a

depletion region is created. This depletion region is where the
rectification occurs.

 When a positive voltage is applied to the p-type material and a

negative voltage is applied to the n-type material, the depletion
region becomes narrower and current flows easily.
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 75
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE
The following are some of the important characteristics of a diode:
 Forward voltage: This is the voltage that must be applied to a
diode in order to forward bias it. The forward voltage of a diode
is typically between 0.7 and 1.2 volts.

 Reverse voltage: This is the voltage that must be applied to a

diode in order to reverse bias it. The reverse voltage of a diode
can be very high, up to several thousand volts.

 Forward current: This is the current that flows through a diode

when it is forward biased. The forward current of a diode can be
very high, up to several amperes.
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 76

 TYPES OF DIODES

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 77

 PN JUNCTION DIODES
 Diodes are semiconductor devices
 Formed from the junction of two dissimilar semiconductor materials
 P-type and N-type semiconductors
 P-N junctions:

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 78

 PN JUNCTION DIODE

 When a P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an N-type

semiconductor, the contact surface is called as PN junction.
 N-type material has a high concentration of free electrons (majority
carriers) while P-type material has a high concentration of holes (majority
carriers).
 Because of mutual repulsion electrons in the N-type region move in all
directions. Some of them also cross the junction.
 When a free electron leaves the N-region, it produces a positively charged
atom or a positive ion in the N-region depicted in the figure as + .
 As it enters the P-region, the free electron becomes a minority carrier. Soon
this minority carrier falls into a hole. The associated atom becomes
negatively charged (negative ion) depicted in the figure as – .
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 79
 PN JUNCTION DIODE

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 80

 ZENER DIODE

 Zener Diode is one of the most important semiconductor diodes used in our daily
life. It is a specific diode that works in reverse bias conditions.

 It allows current to flow from anode to cathode and it also works in the reverse
direction.

 A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is called a
Zener Diode. They are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow
in both forward and backward directions.

 For the Zener diode, the voltage drop across the diode is always constant
irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener diodes are used as a voltage
regulator.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 81

 ZENER DIODE
 A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode works in reverse bias conditions.
An electrical breakdown occurring in the reverse-biased condition of the PN junction
diode is called the Zener effect.

 In this condition when the electric field increases to a high value it enables the
tunnelling of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band of a
semiconductor, which suddenly increases the reverse current.

 The Zener diode has applications in various electronic devices and it works in reverse
biasing conditions.

 In reverse biasing, the P-type material of the diode is connected with the negative
terminal of the power supply, and the n-type material is connected with the positive
terminal of the power supply.

 The diode consists of a very thin depletion region as it is made up of heavily doped
semiconductor material.
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 82
 ZENER DIODE

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 83

 ZENER DIODE WORKING

 High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it more

conductive and thus the Zener diodes can easily conduct electricity
compared to other p-n junction diodes.

 These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and
make it very thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the voltage
applied is very small.

 In no biassing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons

accumulate in the valence band of the p-type semiconductor material
and thus no current flow occurs through the diode.

 In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the

supplied
Module I-Electronics voltage, the diode
& [Link], conducts electricity in the direction of
AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 84
 ZENER DIODE WORKING IN REVERSE
BIASED
 In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal
diode but in the reverse-bias condition, a small leak current flows
through the diode.

 As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a point where

the reverse voltage equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown
voltage is represented as Vz and in this condition the current start
flowing in the diode.

 After the breakdown voltage the current increase drastically until it

reaches a stable value.

In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener

Diode which are,
• I-Electronics
Module
Avalanche Breakdown
& [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 85
 VI Characteristics of Zener Diode

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 86

 TRANSISTORS

 A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that can be used to

conduct and insulate electric current or voltage.

 A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier. In

simple words, we can say that a transistor is a miniature device
that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.

 Transistors are one of the key components in most of the

electronic devices that are present today.

 Developed in the year 1947 by three American physicists, John

Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley, the transistor is
considered one of the most important inventions in the history of
science.
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 87
 PARTS OF TRANSISTORS

 A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials or,

more specifically, terminals which help to make a connection to an external circuit
and carry the current.

 A voltage or current that is applied to any one pair of the terminals of a transistor
controls the current through the other pair of terminals.

 There are three terminals for a transistor. They are listed below:

 Base: This is used to activate the transistor.

 Collector: It is the positive lead of the transistor.

 Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 88

 PARTS OF TRANSISTORS

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 89

 TYPES OF TRANSISTORS
Types of Transistors
There are mainly two types of transistors, based on how they are used in a circuit.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The three terminals of BJT are the base, emitter and collector. A very small current
flowing between the base and emitter can control a larger flow of current between
the collector and emitter terminal.

Furthermore, there are two types of BJT, and they include:

 P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or

placed between two p-type materials.

 In such a configuration, the device will control the flow of current.

 PNP transistor consists of 2 crystal diodes which are connected in series.

 Module
The I-Electronics
right side and left sideAP(Sr.G)/EIE
& [Link], of the diodes are known as the collector-base
04/16/2026 diode
90
and emitter-base diode, respectively.
 N-P-N TRANSISTOR

N-P-N Transistor:

 In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present between two n-type
materials.

 N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to strong signals.

 In an NPN transistor, the electrons move from the emitter to the collector region,
resulting in the formation of current in the transistor. This transistor is widely used in
the circuit.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 91

 PNP TRANSISTORS

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 92

 TYPES OF CONFIGURATION

 There are three types of configuration, which are common base (CB),
common collector (CC) and common emitter (CE).

 In common base (CB) configuration, the base terminal of the transistor is

common between input and output terminals.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 93

 COMMON COLLECTOR (CC) CONFIGURATION

 In common collector (CC) configuration, the collector

terminals are common between the input and output
terminals.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 94

 COMMON EMITTER (CE) CONFIGURATION

In common emitter (CE) configuration, the emitter terminal is common between the
input and the output terminals.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 95

 WORKING OF TRANSISTORS
 We know that BJT consists of three terminals (Emitter, Base and
Collector). It is a current-driven device where two P-N junctions exist
within a BJT.

 One P-N junction exists between the emitter and base region, and
the second junction exists between the collector and base region.

 A very small amount of current flow through the emitter to the

base can control a reasonably large amount of current flow
through the device from the emitter to the collector.

 In the usual operation of BJT, the base-emitter junction is

forward-biased, and the base-collector junction is reverse-
biased.

Module
When a current
I-Electronics flows through
& [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE the base-emitter junction, the current
04/16/2026 96
 OPERATION OF NPN TRANSISTOR

 The emitter of the NPN device is made of n-type material; hence,

the majority of carriers are electrons.

 When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, the electrons

will move from the n-type region towards the p-type region, and
the minority carrier holes move towards the n-type region.

 When they meet each other, they will combine, enabling a current
to flow across the junction.

 When the junction is reverse-biased, the holes and electrons

move away from the junction, and now, the depletion region
forms between the two areas and no current will flow through it.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 97

 OPERATION OF NPN TRANSISTOR

 When a current flows between the base and emitter, the electrons will leave
the emitter and flow into the base, as shown above. Normally, the electrons will
combine when they reach the depletion region.

 But the doping level in this region is very low, and the base is also very thin.

 This means that most of the electrons are able to travel across the region
without recombining with holes. As a result, the electrons will drift towards
the collector.

 In this way, they are able to flow across what is effectively a reverse-biased
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 98
 TRANSISTORS

Characteristics of Transistor
Characteristics of the transistor are the plots which can represent the relation
between the current and the voltage of a transistor in a particular configuration.

There are two types of characteristics.

•Input characteristics: It will give us the details about the change in input
current with the variation in input voltage by keeping output voltage constant.

•Output characteristics: It is a plot of output current with output voltage by

keeping the input current constant.

•Current transfer characteristics: This plot shows the variation of the output
current with the input current by keeping the voltage constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 99

 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

CB Configuration
The following chart will describe the variation of emitter
current, IE with base – Emitter voltage, VBE keeping collector
voltage constant, VCB.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 100

 CC CONFIGURATION

It shows the variation in IB in accordance with VCB with collector-emitter voltage

VCE keeping constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 101

 CE CHARACTERISTICS

Here it shows the variation in IB in accordance with VBE by keeping VCE constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 102

 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

CB Configuration
This chart shows the variation of collector current, IC with VCB, by
keeping the emitter current IE constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 103

 CC CONFIGURATION

This exhibits the variation in IE against the changes in VCE by keeping IB constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 104

 CE CHARACTERISTICS

Here, it shows the variation in IC with the changes in VCE by keeping

IB constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 105

 CURRENT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

CB Configuration
It gives the variation of IC with the IE by keeping VCB as constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 106

 CC CONFIGURATION

CC Configuration
This shows the variation of IE with IB by keeping VCE constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 107

 CE CHARACTERISTICS

CE Configuration
Here, it shows the variation of IC with IB by keeping VCE constant.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 108

 ADVANTAGES OF TRANSISTOR

•Lower cost and smaller in size.

•Smaller mechanical sensitivity.
•Low operating voltage.
•Extremely long life.
•No power consumption.
•Fast switching.
•Better efficiency circuits can be developed.
•Used to develop a single integrated circuit.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 109

 LIMITATIONS OF TRANSISTOR

Transistors have a few limitations, and they are as follows:

 Transistors lack higher electron mobility.

 Transistors can be easily damaged when electrical and
thermal events arise.
 For example, electrostatic discharge in handling.
 Transistors are affected by cosmic rays and radiation.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 110

 MCQ
1. In Common Base configuration, the current gain is_______________.

a) Greater than 1 b) Equal to 1 c) Less than 1 d) Very high

✅ Answer: c) Less than 12

2. The most widely used transistor configuration is_____________.

a) CB b) CE c) CC d) All equal

✅ Answer: b) CE
3. The current gain in CE configuration is represented by______________.
a) α
b) β
c) γ
d) η

✅ Answer: b) β

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 111

 MCQ
4. In CE configuration, the phase shift between input and output is:
a) 0°
b) 90°
c) 180°
d) 360°

✅ Answer: c) 180°

5. The configuration used for impedance matching is:

b) CB
b) CE
c) CC
d) None

✅ Answer: c) CC

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 112

 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN
PROCESSORS

 Electronic components serve as the fundamental building blocks of modern

technology, enabling high-speed processing, precise data collection, and
sustainable, energy-efficient operations.

 They act as the "brain" of computers, the interface for the physical world, and the
regulators of power consumption.

 Processors (CPUs, GPUs, and SoCs) rely on millions to billions of micro-components

to execute instructions and perform calculations.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 113

 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN
PROCESSORS

Transistors: The most critical component, acting as microscopic switches and

amplifiers. They represent binary code (1 or 0) to process information.

Integrated Circuits (ICs): Fabricated on silicon wafers, ICs combine transistors,

resistors, and capacitors to form complex microprocessors that handle data
processing at high speeds.

Cache Memory (SRAM): High-speed, volatile memory located close to the CPU,
crucial for reducing data access wait times.

Crystal Oscillators: Generate consistent frequencies to provide the clock signal

that synchronizes all operations within the processor.

Voltage Regulator Modules (VRMs): Utilize power MOSFETs to control and

stabilize the voltage supplied to the processor

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 114

 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN
DATA ACQUISITION

 Data acquisition systems bridge the physical world and digital systems by
measuring, conditioning, and digitizing physical parameters.

 Sensors and Transducers: These detect physical phenomena—temperature,

pressure, motion, sound—and convert them into analog electrical signals
(voltage/current).

 Signal Conditioning Circuitry: Amplifiers increase the strength of weak sensor

signals, while filters remove noise and interference to ensure signal integrity
before digitization.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 115

 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN DATA
ACQUISITION

 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): The core component that converts

conditioned, continuous analog signals into discrete binary values (digital data)
for processor analysis.

 Multiplexers (MUX): Allow multiple sensor inputs to share a single ADC, reducing
system complexity and cost.

 Data Storage (SSD/Flash): Non-volatile memory that stores acquired, processed

data.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 116

 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN
ENERGY-EFFICIENT COMPUTING

 With the rise of IoT and data centers, components are designed to minimize power
consumption (heat generation) while maximizing performance.

 Gallium Nitride (GaN) & Silicon Carbide (SiC) Semiconductors: These wide-bandgap
materials allow faster switching speeds, lower losses, and higher efficiency compared
to traditional silicon, making them ideal for power supplies.

 Low-Power Processors (ARM/TPUs): Custom-designed chips like Google’s Tensor

Processing Units or ARM-based processors are optimized to provide high-performance
computing with significantly lower energy consumption.

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 117

 ROLE OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN
ENERGY-EFFICIENT COMPUTING

 Power Management Integrated Circuits (PMICs): Dynamically adjust power

levels, slowing down or turning off parts of the processor when not in use.

 Passive Components (Capacitors & Inductors): Used in DC-DC converters to

smooth voltage, filter noise, and store/release energy efficiently, reducing
power wastage.

 Solid State Drives (SSDs): Consume less power and offer higher speeds
compared to traditional electromechanical hard disk drives

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 118

 MCQ
1. The basic building block of a processor is_______________.
A) Capacitor B) Transistor
C) Inductor D) Diode

Answer: B) Transistor

2. Modern processors are primarily built using ____________.

A) BJT technology B) Vacuum tubes
C) MOSFET technology D) Relays

Answer: C) MOSFET technology

3. In processors, logic gates are constructed

using_____________.
A) Resistors only B) Transistors
C) Transformers D) Crystals

Answer: B) Transistors
Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 119
 MCQ
1. The main function of a data acquisition system (DAQ) is to ____________.
A) Generate power B) Collect and convert real-world signals
C) Store fuel D) Amplify sound

Answer: B) Collect and convert real-world signals

2. A sensor converts _____________.

A) Digital signal to analog B) Electrical signal to mechanical
C) Physical quantity to electrical signal D) AC to DC

Answer: C) Physical quantity to electrical signal

3. The device used to convert analog signals into digital form is _____________.
A) DAC B) ADC C) Oscillator D) Amplifier

Answer: B) ADC

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 120

 MCQ
4. Signal conditioning circuits are used to:
A) Damage signals
B) Amplify or filter signals
C) Store signals
D) Generate clock
Answer: B) Amplify or filter signals

5. Which component removes noise from signals?

A) Filter
B) Relay
C) Transformer
D) Switch
Answer: A) Filter

Module I-Electronics & [Link], AP(Sr.G)/EIE 04/16/2026 121