INTRODUCTION
AND BASIC
CONCEPTS
Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid
Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow
problems encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve
them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy,
precision, and significant digits, and
recognize the importance of dimensional
homogeneity in engineering calculations.
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INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies under
the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is Fluid mechanics
also referred to as fluid dynamics by deals with liquids and
considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity. motion or at
gases in 3
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that
can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow of
gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially
air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.
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What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
• A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously under
the influence of a shear stress, no
matter how small.
• In solids, stress is
proportional to strain, but in
fluids, stress is proportional Deformation of a rubber block
to strain rate. placed between two parallel
When a constant shear force is plates under the influence of
applied, a solid eventually stops a shear force. The shear
deforming at some fixed strain stress shown is that on the
angle, whereas a fluid never
rubber—an equal but opposite
stops deforming and
shear stress acts on the upper
approaches a constant rate of
strain. plate. 5
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting
on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting
on a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in
a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at
rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
• When the walls are
removed or a liquid The normal stress and shear
container is tilted, a shear stress at the surface of a fluid
develops as the liquid element. For fluids at rest, the
moves to re-establish a shear stress is zero and pressure
horizontal free surface. is the only normal stress. 6
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other,
but the volume remains relatively constant because of the
strong cohesive forces between the molecules. As a result, a
liquid takes the shape of the container it is in, and it forms a
free surface in a larger container in a gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container
and fills the entire available space. This is because the gas
molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces
between them are very small. Unlike liquids, a gas in an open
container cannot form a free surface.
Unlike a liquid, a
gas
does not form a
free surface,
and it expands
to fill the entire 7
available space.
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in
gases. The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is
Solid:
repeated throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each
other, and molecular ordering is nonexistent.
The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at
relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move
about each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules
in the about
move gas at random 8
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas
when it is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a
state of
condensation.
Macroscopic or classical approach:
Does not require a knowledge of
the behavior of individual
molecules and provides a direct
and easy way to analyze
engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach:
Based on the average behavior of
large groups of individual
molecules.
On a microscopic scale,
pressure is determined by
the interaction of individual
gas molecules. 9
However, we can measure
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid dynamics is used
extensively in the design of
artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn 1
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READ THE HISTORY OF
FLUID MECHANICS
Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each A mine hoist powered
clay by 1
3
Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for
demonstrating the onset of turbulence in pipes, being
operated by John Lienhard at the University of
Manchester in 1975.
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The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty
Hawk.
Old and new wind
turbine technologies north of
Woodward, OK. The modern
turbines have 1.6
16
MW capacities.
THE NO-SLIP CONDITION
A fluid flowing over a stationary
surface comes to a complete
The development of a
velocity profile due to the no- stop at the surface because of
slip condition as a fluid flows conditio
the no-slip
over a blunt nose. n. Boundary layer: The
flow region
adjacent to the wall
in which the
viscous effects (and
thus the velocity
Flow separation during flow over a curved gradients) are 1
significant. 6
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
The flow of an
originally uniform
fluid stream over a
flat plate, and the
regions of viscous
flow (next to the
plate on both sides)
and inviscid flow
(away from the 18
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a
surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.
• Water flow in a
pipe is internal
flow, and airflow
over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids
in a duct is called
open- channel flow if
the duct is only
partially filled with
the liquid and there
is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the 19
turbulent wake region behind.
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density
of flowing fluid remains nearly
constant throughout (e.g., liquid
flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of
fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
• When analyzing rockets,
spacecraft, and other systems
that involve high- speed gas
flows, the flow speed is often
expressed by Mach number
Schlieren image of the spherical
shock wave produced by a
Ma = 1 Sonic flow bursting ballon
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow at the Penn State Gas Dynamics
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow Lab. Several secondary shocks
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow are seen in the air surrounding
the ballon.
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Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized
by velocity fluctuations. The
flow of low- viscosity fluids
such as air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between being
laminar and turbulent.
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent
flows over a flat plate.
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Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is
forced to flow over a
surface or in a pipe by
external means such as a
pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such
as the buoyancy effect,
which manifests itself as the
rise of warmer (and thus
lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser)
fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl
in a swimming suit, the rise of lighter,
warmer air adjacent to her body
indicates that humans and warm- 2
blooded animals are surrounded 1by
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change at
a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind
of unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for
long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified
as steady-flow devices.
Oscillating wake of a blunt-based
airfoil at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is
an instantaneous image, while photo
(b) is a long-exposure (time-averaged) 2
2
image.
Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an
unsteady flow, and (b) long exposure picture of the
same flow. 2
3
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized
by its velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or
three- dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three
dimensions, respectively.
Flow over a car
• However, the variation of velocity in antenna is approximately
certain directions can be small relative two-dimensional except near
to the variation in other directions and the top and bottom of
can be ignored. the antenna.
The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z)
and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and
becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully
develops
the flow direction,
and remains
V = unchanged in 2
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2
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SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside
the
system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.
• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.
2
6
• Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.
An open system (a
control volume) with
one inlet and one 2
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IMPORTANCE OF
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length
L, time t, and temperature T are selected as
primary or fundamental dimensions, while
others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume
V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent systematic
numerical base, and various units in this
system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily. 29
Primary or fundamental dimensions
secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Some SI and English Units
Work = Force Distance The SI unit prefixes are used
1 J = 1 N∙m in all branches of
1 cal = 4.1868 J engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
The definition of the force
units. 31
W weight
m mass
g
gravitational
acceleration
A body
weighing 150
kgf on earth
will weigh only
25 lbf on the
moon.
The relative magnitudes of the
force units newton (N),
kilogram-force (kgf), and
pound-force (lbf).
The weight of a
unit mass at sea 3
0
level.
A typical match yields about one
Btu (or one kJ) of energy if 33
completely burned.
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally
homogeneous.
Unity Conversion Ratios
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be
expressed as
They can also be expressed more
conveniently
as unity conversion ratios as
To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal terms in an equation
to 1 and are unitless, and thus such ratios (or must have the same
their inverses) can be inserted conveniently unit.
into any calculation to properly convert units.
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Every unity conversion ratio (as
well as its inverse) is exactly
equal to one. Shown here are a
few commonly used unity
conversion ratios.
Always check the units in your
calculations.
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A quirk
in the
metric
system 3
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING
OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
Experimental vs. Analytical Analysis
An engineering device or process can be studied either
experimentally (testing and taking measurements) or analytically
(by analysis or calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we
deal with the actual physical system, and the desired
quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits
of experimental error. However, this approach is expensive,
time-consuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach)
has the advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the
results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the
assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the
analysis.
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Modeling in Engineering
Why do we need differential
equations? The descriptions of
most scientific problems involve
equations that relate the
changes in some key variables
to each other.
In the limiting case of infinitesimal
or differential changes in variables,
we obtain differential equations that
provide precise mathematical
formulations for the physical
principles and laws by
representing the rates of change
as derivatives.
Therefore, differential equations
are used to investigate a wide
variety of problems in sciences
and engineering.
Do we always need differential Mathematical
equations? Many problems
modeling of
physical
encountered in practice can be 3
problems. 9
Complex model
(very
accurat
e ) vs.
Simple model
(not-so-
Simplified models are often
accurate)
used in fluid mechanics to
obtain approximate
solutions to difficult
engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is
modeled by a disk, across
which is imposed a sudden
change in pressure. The
helicopter's body is modeled
by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the
essential features of the
overall air flow field in the
The right
vicinity choice
of the is usually
ground.
the simplest model that
yields satisfactory results.4
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PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
•Step 1: Problem Statement
•Step 2: Schematic
•Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
•Step 4: Physical Laws
•Step 5: Properties
•Step 6: Calculations
•Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
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A step-by-step approach can
greatly
simplify problem solving.
The assumptions
made
while solving
an engineering
problem must be
44
reasonable and
Neatness and organization
are highly valued by
employers.
The results obtained from
an engineering analysis
must be checked for
reasonableness.
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ENGINEERING
SOFTWARE PACKAGES
All the computing power and the
engineering software packages
available today are just tools, and
tools have meaning only in the
hands of masters.
Hand calculators did not eliminate
the need to teach our children how
to add or subtract, and
sophisticated medical software
packages did not take the place of
medical school training.
Neither will engineering software
packages replace the traditional
engineering education. They will
simply cause a shift in emphasis in
the courses from mathematics to An excellent word-processing
physics. That is, more time will be program does not make a
spent in the classroom discussing person a good writer; it simply
the physical aspects of the makes a good writer a more
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problems in greater detail, and less efficient writer.
EES (Engineering Equation Solver)
(Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of
linear or nonlinear algebraic or differential
equations numerically.
It has a large library of built-in thermodynamic
property functions as well as mathematical
functions.
Unlike some software packages, EES does not
solve engineering problems; it only solves the
equations supplied by the user.
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ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Accuracy error (inaccuracy): The value of
one reading minus the true value. In
general, accuracy of a set of
measurements refers to the closeness of
the average reading to the true value.
Accuracy is generally associated with
repeatable, fixed errors.
Precision error: The value of one reading
minus the average of readings. In
general, precision of a set of
measurements refers to the fineness of
the resolution and the repeatability of the
instrument. Precision is generally
associated with unrepeatable, random
errors.
Significant digits: Digits that are relevant
and
4
meaningful. 9
A result with more significant
digits than that of given data
falsely implies more precision.
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An instrument with many digits of resolution
(stopwatch c) may be less accurate than an instrument
with few digits of resolution (stopwatch a). What can
you say about stopwatches b and d?
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