Module – II
Heat Treatment Process and Phase Transformation
Syllabus
Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram, reactions, phase and
microstructure changes – Isothermal transformation diagrams-
CCT and TTT diagrams, Heat treatment of steels, Annealing,
Normalizing, hardening, Tempering, Austempering, Martempering,
hardenability, Jominy end quench test. Surface hardening/Case
hardening: Carburizing, Cyaniding, Nitriding, Flame hardening,
Induction hardening. Strengthening mechanisms
Introduction to Phase Diagram
Equilibrium diagram or phase diagram is a graphical representation of
various phase present in material system at various temperature and
composition point.
Uses of equilibrium or phase diagram:
1. It shows the various phase present at different composition and
temperature.
2. It indicate solid solubility of one element in other.
3. It shows the temperature range over which solidification or
liquidification of material system occurs.
GIBB’S PHASE RULE
Gibbs phase rule establishes the relationship between the number of
variable (F), the number of element (C), and the number of phases
(P). It is expressed mathematically as follows:
P+F=C+2
Where,
• P = Number of phases in system
• F = Number of variables that can be change independently without
effecting number of phases
• C = Number of elements
• 2 = It represent any two variables amongst temperature, pressure
and composition
• In general all equilibrium diagram studied at constant
pressure, hence Gibb’s phase rule is modified to
P+F=C+1
• Phase rule helps to determine maximum number of
phase present in an alloy system under equilibrium
conditions at any point in phase diagram.
• The phase rule can also be used to determine the
degree of freedom that can be changed
Iron ‐ Iron Carbide (Fe‐Fe3C) Phase Diagram
A map of the temperature at which different phase changes occur
on very slow heating and cooling in relation to Carbon, is called
Iron- Carbon Diagram.
Iron- Carbon diagram shows
• The type of alloys formed under very slow cooling,
• Proper heat-treatment temperature and
• How the properties of steels and cast irons can be radically
changed by heat-treatment.
• Interstitial solid solution of small amounts carbon
dissolved in BCC-Iron.
𝞪-Ferrite • Max. solubility of carbon is 0.025% at 727 ºC and
0.008% at room temp.
• Softest among all the phases.
• Interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC
iron.
Austenite • Max solubility of carbon is 2.1%
• It is not stable below 727 ºC
• Non-magnetic
• Interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC
iron.
𝞭 - Ferrite • Upon heating Austenite changes to BCC
and gets 𝞭-Ferrite.
• Max solubility of carbon is 0.1%
• This is also known as Iron Carbide (Fe3C)
• It’s a chemical compound because it
contains a fixed percentage of carbon
Cementite (6.67%)
• It has an orthorhombic crystal structure
(a≠b ≠c)
• It is the eutectic lamellar mixture of
austenite (light phase) and cementite (dark
Ledeburite phase)
• It is unstable below 727 ºC and transforms
into 𝞪 -ferrite and cementite
• Austenite containing 0.8%C forms pearlite
upon slow cooling below 727 ºC
• Its lamellar structure of 𝞪-ferrite and
Pearlite
cementite.
• It is very bright in appearance (like a pearl)
• It has a fingerprint like appearance
There are three reactions which occur in iron – cementite phase
diagram
Peritectic reaction: In the alloy containing 0.18% carbon, the initial
crystals of delta solid solution and the whole of liquid phase is
completely transformed to from austenite on cooling at 1493 ºC
Liquid + δ ↔ austenite
Eutectic reaction: alloy with carbon content 4.33%, the liquid is
transformed into austenite and cementite on cooling at 1147 ºC
liquid ↔ austenite + cementite
The eutectic of austenite and cementite is known as ledeburite
Eutectoid reaction: in Iron – carbon alloy with 0.8% carbon, the
austenite is transformed into ferrite and cementite by eutectoid reaction
on cooling in 727 ºC.
austenite ↔ pearlite (mixture of ferrite & cementite)
The eutectoid of ferrite and cementite is known as “Pearlite”
What is heat treatment ?
• Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving
heating at a specific rate, soaking at a temperature for a period of time
and cooling at some specified rate. The aim is to obtain a desired
microstructure to achieve certain predetermined properties (physical,
mechanical, magnetic or electrical).
Purposes of heat treatment.
1. Increase their hardness and strength
2. To improved ductility
3. To soften them for subsequent operations (cutting etc)
4. Stress relieving
5. Eliminate the effects of cold work
Objectives of heat treatment processes
The major objectives are
• to increase strength, hardness and wear resistance (bulk hardening,
surface hardening)
• to increase ductility and softness (tempering, recrystallization
annealing)
• to increase toughness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
• to obtain fine grain size (recrystallization annealing, full annealing,
normalising)
• to remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold
working, non-uniform cooling from high temperature during casting and
• to improve machineability (full annealing and normalising)
• to improve cutting properties of tool steels (hardening and
tempering)
• to improve surface properties (surface hardening, corrosion
resistance-stabilising treatment and high temperature
resistance-precipitation hardening, surface treatment)
• to improve electrical properties (recrystallization, tempering,
age hardening)
• to improve magnetic properties (hardening, phase
transformation)
Types of Heat Treatment Process
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Case Hardening
Annealing
• Annealing is the process for softening materials or to bring
about required changes in properties, such as machinability,
mechanical or electrical properties, or dimensional stability.
• The annealing process consists of heating the steel to or near
the critical temperature (temperature at which crystalline phase
change occurs) to make it suitable for fabrication.
• A material can be annealed by heating it to a specific
temperature and then letting the material slowly cool to room
temperature in an oven.
Objective of Annealing :-
1. Relieves internal stresses developed during solidification,
machining, forging, rolling, welding etc.
2. Improve or restore ductility and toughness.
3. To enhanced machinability.
4. Eliminate chemical non-uniformity.
5. To refine grain size and grain structure.
6. Enhance magnetic and electrical properties.
Process variables annealing
Austenitizing temperature
• hypo-eutectoid steel = Ac3 + (30 - 50 °C )
• Eutectoid steel = A1 + (30 - 50 °C )
• Hype-eutectoid steel = Acm + 50 °C
Austenitizing or soaking time
• soaking for a sufficient length of time at austenitizing temp to
convert
( ferrite + pearlite ) complete austenite
Cooling
Furnace cooling
Three stages of annealing
• Heating to the desired temperature : The material is
austenitized by heating to 15 to 40 °C above the A3 or A1 lines
until equilibrium is achieved (i.e., the alloy changes to
austenite),
• Soaking or holding time: The material is held for 1h at the
annealing temperature for every inch of thickness (a rule of
thumb)
• Cooling to room temperature: cooling rate of 100°F/hr is
typical for full annealing. Done in furnace itself.
Normalizing
• It is a type of heat treatment applicable to ferrous metals only.
• It differs from annealing in that the metal is heated to a higher
temperature and then removed from the furnace for air
cooling.
• The purpose of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses
induced by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or
machining.
• Normalizing is used in some plate mills, in the production of
large forgings such as railroad wheels and axles, some bar
products. This process is less expensive than annealing.
Objective of Normalizing
• Grain size refinement of steel.
• Improve machinability, ductility & toughness.
• Homogenize chemical composition of cast ingots.
Process variables Normalizing
Austenitizing temperature
• Hypo-eutectoid steel = Ac3 + 50 °C
• Eutectoid steel = A1 + 50 °C
Austenitizing time
• sufficient length of time
Cooling
• Cooling pattern cooling in still air or slighty agitated air
Differences between Annealing and Normalizing
Annealing Normalizing
Steel parts are gradually cooled in a Steel parts are gradually cool in still air
furnace.
Comparatively lower yield point, The comparatively higher yield point
Ultimate Tensile strength, and impact ultimate tensile strength and impact
strength. strength.
Comparatively soft and easily Comparatively less soft.
machinable.
Low hardness. BHN ranges from 125 to Relatively more hard. Bhn ranges from
220 BHN. 140 to 245 BHN.
Highly ductile and percentage of The less ductile and relative
elongation is more. percentage of elongation is less
Hardening
• It is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the pre-
requisites for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content.
• To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated
into the austenitic crystal phase and then quickly cooled.
• Depending on the alloy and other considerations (such as concern for
maximum hardness vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may be done with
forced air or other gas (such as nitrogen), oil , polymer dissolved in water, or
brine.
• One drawback of using this method by itself is that the metal becomes
brittle. This treatment is therefore typically followed by a tempering process
which is a heating process at another lower specific temperature to stress
relieve the material and minimize the brittleness problem
Objectives of Hardening
1. Main aim of hardening is to induce high hardness. The
cutting ability of a tool is proportional to its hardness.
2. Many machine parts and all tools are hardened to induce
high wear resistance higher is the hardness , higher is the
wear and the abrasion resistance .For example ,gears,
shaft.
3. The main objective of hardening machine components
made of structural steel is to develop high yield strength
with good toughness and ductility to bear high working
stresses.
Process variables Hardening
Austenitizing temperature
• Hypo-eutectoid steel = Ac3 + (20 - 40 °C)
• Hyper-eutectoid steel and Eutectoid steel = Ac1 + (20 - 40
°C)
Austenitizing time
• sufficient length of time
Cooling
• Cooling may be done with forced air or other gas (such as
nitrogen), oil , polymer dissolved in water, or brine.
Tempering
• Tempering is carried out by preheating previously quenched
or normalized steel to a temperature below the critical range,
holding, and then cooling to obtain the desired mechanical
properties.
• Tempering is used to reduce the brittleness of quenched
steel.
• The temperature chosen for the tempering process directly
impacts the hardness of the work piece . The higher the
temperature in the tempering process, the lower the
hardness.
Stages of Tempering
• On reheating as-quenched martensite, the tempering takes
place in four distinct but overlapping stages:
• Stage 1, up to 250°C — precipitation of E-iron carbide;
partial loss of tetragonality in martensite.
• Stage 2, between 200 and 300°C — decomposition of
retained austenite .
• Stage 3, between 200 and 350°C — replacement of &iron
carbide by cementite; martensite loses tetragonality.
• Stage 4, above 350°C — cementite coarsens and
spheroidizes; recrystallization of ferrite.
Surface hardening/Case hardening
• Case hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a
metal, thus forming a thin layer of harder metal (called the
"case") at the surface.
• Case hardening is usually done after the part has been formed
into its final shape.
• Case hardening can provide a part that will not fracture
(because of the soft core that can absorb stresses without
cracking) but also provides adequate wear resistance on the
surface.
Types of Case Hardening
Case or Surface
Hardening
Case Hardening Quench hardening
Carburizing
Induction Flame
Nitriding Hardening Hardening
Cyaniding
Carburizing
Principle of Carburizing
• At a high temperature (T = 860 - 900°C), carbon is
continuously added on the surface of the component from
a solid, liquid or gas source. With time, carbon diffuses
into the steel.
• Depth up to which carbon diffuses into steel controlled by
time and temperature
• Time required to achieve desired case depth decreases
with increasing temperature
What is Carburizing?
• Carburizing is one of the most widely used methods, of
case hardening. The purpose of case hardening is to
increase the surface hardness of steel. In this process, the
steel is introduced to a carbon-rich environment and
elevated to a temperature range of 850 to 950 oC for a
certain amount of time.
• Due to this Carbon starts diffused into the surface layer of
the material. The rate of diffusion depends upon the time
and temperature zone at which the material is maintained.
Carburizing Methods
They are four basics methods of Carburizing are widely
used for case hardness. They are
• Pack or Solid Carburizing
• Gas Carburizing
• Liquid Carburizing
Pack or solid Carburizing
• In this process, components to be case harden is packed in
an environment with high carbon content such as bone
char, charcoal or barium carbonate. The components are
heated to a temperature range of 850 to 950 oC so that the
carbon is diffused into the outer surface of the material.
• The diffusion rate of carbon is depending upon the
composition of the part, temperature and time. The outer
surface of the material is hardened whereas the core of the
material remains ductile. The case hardens depth is
approximately 0.1 to 2 mm.
Normally this method is used for soft steels with a
carbon content of 0.2% or less which cannot be
hardened by simple heating and quenching.
Gas Carburizing
• This process contains gases capable of forming atomic
carbon at high temperature over parts made of mild steel.
The gases wildly used for this process are carbon monoxide,
natural gas, a mixture of methane, ethane and propane.
• The components to be Carburizing is placed in a furnace and
heated to a temperature range of 900 to 950 oC. Then the
Carburizing gas is passed through the chamber for a period
of 5 to 10 hours. Due to this high temperature, the carbon in
the gas is diffused into the surface of the component and it is
case hardened.
When compare with pack Carburizing, this method is more easy for
Carburizing the components. This method can be used in mass
production.
Advantages of Gas Carburizing
• It takes less time when compared with pack Carburizing
method
• Control is more accurate to achieve surface carbon content and
case hardness
• When compare with pack Carburizing, complicated shape
components are carburised by this method.
Liquid Carburizing
In this process, the steel components are immersed in a
liquefied carbon-rich bath of molten salts. The molten salt
contains a mixture of sodium carbonate, sodium chloride and
silicon carbide. The reaction in the bath is
This saturates the metal with carbon. The bath is replenished
from time to time. The components are immersed in the bath at
a temperature of around 870 to 900 ºC.
• So that the carbon is diffused into the surface of the steel. In
this method the time required for carburising the metal surface
of 0.2 to 0.3 mm in 35 to 55 min.
• Then the metal is then undergone rapid quenching to lock the
carbon inside the structure. By this method uniform case
hardening is obtained when compared with other methods.
Advantages of Liquid Carburizing
• Uniform case hardening depth is obtained
• Components are free from oxidation
• Soot is not formed on the surface of the component
Nitriding
• Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen into the product to form
nitrides. The resulting nitride case can be harder than the
carburized steel.
• This process is used for alloy steels containing alloying elements
(Aluminum, Chromium and Molybdenum) which form stable
nitrides.
• Nitriding consists of heating a component in a retort to a
temperature of about 500 to 600 ºC.
• Through the retort the ammonia gas is allowed to circulate. At this
temperature the ammonia dissociates by the following reaction.
• The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel surface, and combines with the
alloying elements (Cr, Mo, W, V etc) to form hard nitrides.
• The depth to which nitrides are formed in the steel depends on the
temperature and the time allowed for the reaction.
• After the nitriding the job is allowed to cool slowly. Since there is no
quenching involved, chances of cracking and distortion of the component
are less.
• The depth of nitride case ranges from 0.2 to 0.4mm and NO MACHINING is
done after nitriding.
• Nitriding increase wear and corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of the
steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature, it requires more time than
carburizing, and also the capital cost if the plant is higher than carburizing.
ADVANTAGES OF GAS NITRIDING
• Low-cost compared with other case applications. The process runs with minimum
required supervision, post-process components are dimensionally stable, and
there is very little if any treatment necessary in post heat treat operations.
• Zero to minimal distortion experienced on parts, which enables precise
dimensional control.
• High volume capability. Furnace size is the primary limiting factor.
• Wear and corrosion resistant.
• Increased fatigue strength.
• Gas flow rate can be precisely controlled, and parts can be masked, preventing
hardening in some areas. This allows for post-application machining.
• Clean parts are produced, with none of the residues that accompany salt baths,
carburizing and other process.
Advantage and Disadvantage of Nitriding Process
Advantage Disadvantage
Very high surface hardening Its use is limited due to expense
required for treatment( Very costly)
As the nitrided parts are not The case formed is brittle
quenched, there is no chance of
distortion/cracking
Surface becomes resistive to The cycle time for nitriding is 50-90
corrosion, wear and fatigue hours
No machining of components is Only special types of steels can be
required after nitriding heat treated using this process
Retains hardness up to 500 degree
Celsius.
Cyaniding
• Cyaniding is also a surface hardening process in which the
heated parts to be surface hardened are immersed in a bath of
molten sodium or potassium cyanide.
• The immersed Steel parts are left in the molten cyanide bath for
about 15 to 20 minutes.
• Then the parts are taken out of the bath and Queens in lime
water to neutralize the particles of Cyanide salt sticking to the
surface of the steel parts.
• The cyanide yield carbon monoxide and nitrogen both of which
behaves as active carburizing agents in hardening the surface
of the Steel.
• This surface hardening is particularly suitable for small parts
like a small gear, Bush pins, screws pins, and small hand tool
which required thin and Hard-wear resisting surface.
2NaCN + O2 → 2NaCNO
2NaCNO + O2 → Na2CO3 +CO + N2
2CO → CO2 + C
• This process produces a thin, hard shell (between 0.25 - 0.75
mm, 0.01 and 0.03 inches) that is harder than the one produced
by carburizing, and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes
compared to several hours so the parts have less opportunity to
become distorted.
• It is typically used on small parts such as bolts, nuts, screws
and small gears. The major drawback of cyaniding is that
cyanide salts are poisonous.
Advantage and Disadvantage of Cyaniding Process
Advantage Disadvantage
Rapid heat transfer Cyanide salts are poisonous
Low distortion(easily avoided) Even fumes can cause damage
Negligible oxidation or Direct contact could be harmful
decarburisation of surface
Uniform depth and Less time Molten cyanide explodes on contact
consumption with water
Rapid absorption of carbon and
nitrogen Bright finish of machine
parts
Flame Hardening
• The flame hardening involves heating the surface of a steel to a
temperature above upper critical point (850 ºC) with a
oxyacetylene flame and then immediately quenched the surface
with cold water.
• Heating transforms the structure of surface layers to austenite,
and the quenching changes it to martensite.
• The surface layers are hardened to about 50 – 60 HRC. It is
less expensive and can be easily adopted for large and
complex shapes.
• Flame hardened parts must be tempered after hardening.
The tempering temperature depends on the alloy
composition and desired hardness.
• The flame hardening methods are suitable for the steels with
carbon contents ranging from 0.40 to 0.95% and low alloy
steels.
Advantages of Flame Hardening
• Increased wear resistance.
• Less distortion.
• Reduced processing time.
• Ability to use low to medium carbon steels.
• Reduces cost by hardening only selective areas.
• Achieves high hardness for increased life.
• Less machining and grinding than other methods.
Induction Hardening
• Induction hardening is a method of quickly and selectively hardening
the surface of a metal part. A copper coil carrying a significant level
of alternating current is placed near (not touching) the part. Heat is
generated at, and near the surface by eddy current and hysteresis
losses.
• Quench, usually water-based with an addition such as a polymer, is
directed at the part or it is submerged. This transforms the structure
to martensite, which is much harder than the prior structure.
• A popular, modern type of induction hardening equipment is called a
scanner. The part is held between centers, rotated, and passed
through a progressive coil which provides both heat and quench.
• The quench is directed below the coil, so any given area of the
part is rapidly cooled immediately following heating. Power
level, dwell time, scan (feed) rate and other process variables
are precisely controlled by a computer.
Material and Use of Induction Hardening
• Induction hardening is used where selective parts of a heavy
duty component has to be case hardened.
• Since no carburizing is done, the induction hard enable part
has to contain medium carbon, typically equivalent carbon
content of 0.4-0.45 wt%.
• Examples of application are crank shaft cam shafts etc.
Advantages of Induction Hardening
• Time required for hardening a component is sharply reduced
• It can be applied to both external and internal surfaces.
• Components may be heated with pratically no scaling and distortion.
• Hard case an tough core is obtained
Disadvantages of Induction Hardening
• Cost of equipment is high.
• Steels having less than 0.40% carbon cannot be processed
• Only for mass production.
• High maintaince cost.
• Before induction hardness the components needs some treatment e.g
Austempering
• This method can be used to
overcome the restrictions of
conventional quench and tempering.
• The quench is interrupted at a higher
temperature than for martempering to
allow the metal at the center of the
part to reach the same temperature
as the surface.
• By maintaining that temperature, both
the center and the surface are
allowed to transform to Bainite and
are then cooled to room temperature.
Advantages of Austempering
• Less distortion and cracking than martempering.
• No need for final tempering (less time consuming and more
energy efficient).
• Improvement of toughness (impact resistance is higher than the
conventional quench and tempering).
• Improved ductility.
Martempering
• After heating the steel to a hardening temperature, it is
quenched in the medium having a temperature, from 150°C to
300 °C.
• The specimen is held until it reaches the temperature of
medium and then its cooled further to room temperature in air
and sometimes in oil,
• The holding time in the quenching bath should be sufficient to
enable a uniform temperature to be reached throughout the
cross section but long enough to cause austenitic
decomposition.
• Austenite is transformed
into martensite during the
subsequent period of
cooling to room
temperature.
• This treatment will provide
a structure of martensite
and retained austenite in
the hardened steel.
Hardenability
• Hardenability (not “hardness”): Qualitative measure of rate at
which hardness decreases with distance from surface due to
decreased martensite content.
• High hardenability means the ability of the alloy to produce a
high martensite content throughout the volume of specimen.
• Hardenability dependent upon the chemical composition of the
steel alloy.
• Addition of Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum will slow the
transformation to other phases and allow more martensite to
form.
Factors Affecting or Influencing Hardenability are Quenching
Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry
Quenching Medium:
• Cools faster in water than air/oil.
• Fast cooling Warping and cracks (since it is accompanied by
large thermal gradients)
Shape and Size:
• Cooling rate depends upon extraction of heat to surface. Greater
the ratio of surface area to volume, deeper the hardening effect.
Geometry:
• Spherical objects cools Slower
• Irregular objects cools Faster
Hardenability Test: using Jominy End
Quench Test
• The most simple and convenient method of determining the
Hardenability is the Jominy End - Quench Test.
• The Jominy test involves heating a standard test piece of dia.
25 mm and length 100mm to the austenite state, fixing it to a
frame in a vertical position and then quenching the lower end
by means of a jet of water.
• The mode of quenching results in different rate of cooling along
the length of the test piece.
• After a quenching, a flat of 0.38 mm deep is ground along one
side of the test price, and hardness measurements are made
along the length of the test piece.
• A bar of steel having good hardenability shows higher hardness
readings for greater distance from the quenched end.
Types of Strengthening Mechanism
Single Phase Strengthening Multi Phase
Materials Mechanism Materials
Precipitate
Solid Solution
Hardening
Fiber
Grain Size
Dispersion
Strain
Hardening
Solid Solution Strengthening Mechanism
• When the atoms of base metal (solvent) and the alloying
elements (solute) completely dissolve in each other and become
an integral part of the solid phase of alloy, the resulting phase is
called a Solid Solution.
• High-purity metals are almost softer and weaker than alloys
composed of the same base metal.
• Increasing concentration of the impurity results in increase in
yield strength.
• Alloys stronger than pure metals because impurity atoms that go
into solid solution impose lattice strains on the surrounding host
Interstitial Solid solution
• Solute atoms are much smaller than solvent atoms, so they
occupy interstitial position in solvent lattice.
• Carbon ,nitrogen ,hydrogen ,oxygen and boron are the element
which commonly form interstitial solid solution.
Substitutional solid solution
• Solute atoms sizes are roughly similar to solvent atoms.
• Due to similar size solute atoms occupy vacant site in solvent
atoms.
• Copper and zinc, copper and nickel, are the example of
substitutional solid solution
Grain Size Strengthening Mechanism
• The size of the grains influences mechanical properties.
• During plastic deformation, dislocation motion must take place
across this boundary.
The grain boundary acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for two
reasons:
1. The two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing
into next grain must change its direction of motion and becomes
more difficult as the misorientation increases.
2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region results in a
discontinuity of slip planes from one grain into the other.
• The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that
impedes dislocation motion. Grain-size reduction usually
improves toughness as well. Usually, the yield strength varies
with grain size d according to Hall-Petch equation.
Where
• σy = Yield stress
• σ0 = Friction stress or resistance to dislocation movement
• Ky = locking parameter or hardening contribution from the
grain boundary
• Grain size reduction improves not only strength, but also the
toughness of many alloys.
• If d is average grain diameter, SV is grain boundary area per
unit volume, NL is mean number of intercepts of grain
boundaries per unit length of test line, NA is number of grains
per unit area on a polished surface
• Grain size can also be measured by comparing the grains at a
fixed magnification with standard grain size charts.
Precipitation hardening
• Foreign particles can also obstructs movement of dislocations
i.e. increases the strength of the material.
• Foreign particles can be introduced in two ways – precipitation
and mixing-and-consolidation technique.
• Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening because
strength increases with time.
• Requisite for precipitation hardening is that second phase must
be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature.
• For Examples: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn
alloys.
• If aging occurs at room temperature – Natural aging
• If material need to be heated during aging – Artificial aging.
• Stress (τ) required to bend a dislocation is inversely
proportional to the average interspacing (λ) of particles:
Interspacing (λ) of spherical particles:
where r - particle radius, f - volume fraction
Optimum strengthening occurs during aging once the right
interspacing of particles is achieved.
- Smaller the particles, dislocations can cut through them at
lower stresses
- larger the particles they will be distributed at wider
Fiber strengthening
• Second phase can be introduced into matrix in fiber form too.
• Requisite for fiber strengthening:
Fiber material – high strength and high modulus
Matrix material – ductile and non-reactive with fiber material.
For Examples
Fiber material – Al2O3, boron, graphite, metal, glass, etc.
Matrix material – metals, polymers
Dispersion strengthening
• In dispersion hardening, fine second particles are mixed with matrix
powder, consolidated, and pressed in powder metallurgy techniques.
• For dispersion hardening, second phase need to have very low
solubility at all temperatures.
For Examples: oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides, etc.
• Dislocation moving through matrix embedded with foreign particles
can either cut through the particles or bend around and bypass them.
• Cutting of particles is easier for small particles which can be
considered as segregated solute atoms. Effective strengthening is
achieved in the bending process, when the particles are
submicroscopic in size.
• Mechanism of strengthening is different from other methods.
• Higher modulus fibers carry load, ductile matrix distributes
load to fibers. Interface between matrix and fibers thus plays
an important role.
• Strengthening analysis involves application of continuum, not
dislocation concepts as in other methods of strengthening.
• To achieve any benefit from presence of fibers, critical fiber
volume which must be exceeded for fiber strengthening to
occur:
• Minimum volume fraction of fiber which must be exceeded
to have real reinforcement:
Where
• σmu – strength of strain hardened matrix
• σ’m – flow stress of matrix at a strain equal to fiber
breaking stress
• σfu – ultimate tensile strength of the fiber.
Reference
1. [Link]
400553
2. [Link]
nt
3. [Link]
s-44829747
4. [Link]
nd-methods-of-carburizing/
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
g-and-nitriding-in-/
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
ment?from_action=save
9. [Link]