CHAPTER THREE
LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING
3.1. Definition, Characteristics, and Principles of Learning
Y There are many definitions of learning. The most widely
accepted definition is the one given below.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
occurring as a result of experience or practice.
CON’T…
Y The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning:
I. Learning is a change in behavior
II. This change in behavior is relatively permanent
III. It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation, and
use of intoxicant.
CON’T…
VI. This permanent change in behavior is not because of
biological factors (like hormonal changes) that bring
permanent changes in behavior; but because of
experience, or practice
Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the
activities of the individual.
3.1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life
Learning is pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life.
Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.
Learning is often a change in the organization of experiences.
Learning is responsive to incentives
Learning is an active process
Learning is purposeful
3.1.3. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally
ready to learn.
Students learn best and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and exercise
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.
CON’T…
Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to
erase.
Things most recently learned are best remembered.
The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real
thing than from a substitute.
Individuals must have some abilities and skills that may help them to learn.
FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
Y Some of the factors that affect learning are the following.
Motivation: The stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the
effort to learn. When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes
enthusiastic.
Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task.
Health condition of the learner: The learner should be in a good health status to
learn
Psychological wellbeing of the learner: individual‘s psychological states like
worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas self-
respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective learning.
CON’T…
Con’t…
Good working conditions – absence or presence of fresh air, light,
comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of distractions
like noise and learning aids determine learning effectiveness.
Background experiences: All related facts and understandings from a
previously learned course should be brought to new learning.
Length of the working period: Learning periods should neither be too
short nor too long.
Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in learning.
Short learning time doesn‘t allow adequate practice needed to master a
learning task.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Behavioral Theory of Learning
Y Behavioral theory of learning believes that learning occurs as a result of
stimulus-response associations.
Y Stimulus-Something that exists in the surroundings or that is presented
to develop or minimize behavior.
Y Response-how the organism responds to the stimulus or
Y It is the action to the stimulus.
CON’T…
Y Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek
laws to govern all organisms, and provide explanations
which focus on consequences.
CON’T…
Behaviorists also differ among themselves with respect to
their views about the role of reinforcement in learning.
There are two major behavioral theories of learning. They
are known as classical and operant Conditioning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of making involuntary emotional or
physiological responses to stimuli that normally elicit no response.
Through the process of classical conditioning, humans and animals can be trained
to act involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had no effect - or a very different
effect - on them.
The stimulus comes to elicit, modify the behavior of the learners in such a way as
the responses originally connected with a particular stimulus comes to be aroused
by a different stimulus.
BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITION
Y Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally
bring about the response of interest.
Y Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a
particular response without having been learned.
Y Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no
training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
Y Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired
with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused
only by the unconditioned stimulus.
CON’T…
Y Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a
previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
Y Acquisition- is the part when UCS and CS are presented together. This
increases the likelihood of CR.
Y Hence, the theory of classical conditioning represents a process in which a
neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the
characteristics of natural stimulus.
Y It is also sometimes called substitution learning because it involves
substituting a neutral stimulus in place of unconditioned stimulus.
CON’T…
Stage 1. Before training
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (e.g. bell) No response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (e.g. meat) unconditioned
Response (e.g. Salivation)
Stage 2. During training
CS UCR
UCS
Stage3. After training
CS CR
(The conditioned stimulus now produces a conditioned response.)
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITION
The basic principles of classical conditioning include:-
Y Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a stimulus has been
conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the
original stimulus begin to produce the same responses.
Y Stimulus discrimination is the process of distinguishing two similar stimuli; the
ability to differentiate between stimuli. Example, the dog salivates only in
response to the dinner bell instead of the doorbell or the telephone bell.
CON’T…
Y Extinction- In Pavlov‘s procedure, if a CS is repeatedly
presented without presenting the UCS (meat), the CR will
diminish and eventually stop occurring.
But extinction only inhibits the CR, it does not eliminate it.
Y Spontaneous recovery- is the reemergence of an extinguished
conditioned response after a period of rest and with no
further conditioning.
OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
Y Is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,
depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
Y When we say that a response has been strengthened or weakened, we
mean that it has been made more or less likely to recur/repeat/reappear
regularly.
Y An emphasis on environmental consequences is at the heart of
Operant Conditioning.
Y Is also called Instrumental Conditioning.
Y The organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable
result.
Y In Skinner‘s analysis, a response (operant) can lead to three
types of consequences: such as:
Y A neutral consequence
Y A reinforcement or
Y Punishment.
A neutral consequence
A neutral Consequence that does not alter the response.
A reinforcement
A reinforcement is that strengthens the response or makes it more
likely to recur.
Y It can be classified in to:
Positive reinforcement is the process whereby presentation of
a stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur again.
Negative reinforcement is the process whereby termination of
an aversive stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Y Continuous reinforcement.
Y Intermittent (partial)- involves reinforcing only some
responses, not all of them.
There are four types of intermittent schedules.
A. Fixed-ratio schedules: A fixed ratio schedule of
reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.
They produce high rate of responding.
Employers often use fixed ratio schedules to increase
productivity.
B. Variable-Ratio Schedule: A variable ratio schedule of
reinforcement occurs after some average number of responses
It produces extremely high steady/stable rates of responding.
The responses are more resistant to extinction than when a
fixed ratio schedule is used.
C. Fixed Interval Schedule: A fixed interval schedule of
reinforcement occurs only if a fixed amount of time has
passed since the previous reinforcer.
D. Variable Interval Schedule: occurs only if a variable
amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer.
A basic principle of operant conditioning is that if you want
a response to persist after it has been learned, you should
reinforce it intermittently, not continuously.
Punishment-is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes
it less likely to recur.
Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that weaken
responses or make them unlikely to recur.
Like reinforcers, punishers can also be
Primary (Pain and extreme heat or cold are inherently
punishing )
Secondary (Criticism, demerits, catcalls/insults,
scolding/reprimand, fines/punishments, and bad grades )
THE PROS AND CONS OF PUNISHMENT
Y Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important for
effectiveness of punishment.
Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after the behavior to
be punished.
Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being
punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to
extinction.
Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more effective than
mild ones.
CON’T…
There are two forms of punishment: Positive and negative.
Positive punishment: something is “added” to the mix that makes
the behavior less likely to continue or reoccur (i.e., an unpleasant
consequence is introduced to the subject to discourage their
behavior).
Positive reinforcement: something is added to the mix that
makes the behavior more likely to continue or reoccur (i.e., a
pleasant consequence is introduced to the subject to encourage
their behavior).
Negative punishment: something is “taken away” from the mix that makes the
behavior less likely to continue or reoccur (i.e., something pleasant is removed from
the subject to discourage their behavior).
Negative reinforcement: something is taken away from the mix that makes the
behavior more likely to continue or reoccur (i.e., something unpleasant is removed
from the subject to encourage their behavior).
CON’T…
Punishment fails when:
People often order punishment inappropriately or
mindlessly/carelessly/senselessly.
The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or
rage/anger.
The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on
the presence of the punishing person or circumstances
CON’T…
Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.
Punishment conveys/expresses little information.
An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing
because it brings attention.
SHAPING
Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which
successive approximations of a desired response are
reinforced.
The responses that you reinforce on the way to the final one
are called successive approximations.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Is also called observational learning theory
Founded by Albert Bandura
Is a prospect that people learn by observing others.
Consists is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or
model.
Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social phenomenon—
the perspective taken by Bandura is often referred to as a social cognitive
approach to learning (Bandura, 1999, 2004).
CON’T…
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before
an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone
else:
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the
behavior that has been observed.
CON’T…
3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to
replicate/copy the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated.
4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to
occur is motivation; learners must want to demonstrate what they
have learned.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing
mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and
external factors in order to produce learning in individuals.
These cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and
forming generalizations about our environment.
A disruption/disturbance in these natural cognitive processes
can cause behavioral problems in individuals
CON’T…
Cognitive learning may take two forms:
Latent learning
Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual learning)
CON’T…
Latent Learning
Latent means hidden
is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an
overt response.
It occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the
behavior or associations that are learned.
Is learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until
there is a reason to demonstrate it.
CON’T…
Insight Learning
Insight learning refers to the sudden realization of the
solution of any problem without repeated trials or continuous
practices.
Is the type of learning, in which one draws on previous
experience and also seems to involve a new way of perceiving
logical and cause-and-effect relationship.
THANKS
If there isn’t pleasure in work, you
won’t get productivity and you won’t
get quality!!!